PE 1109 
.G82 
1840 
Copy 1 



CTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



IN WHICH THE 

INCIPLES ESTABLISHED BY LINDLEY MURRAY 

ARE INCULCATED,' AND HIS 

THEORY OF THE MODES 

CLEARLY ILLUSTRATED BY DIAGRAMS, REPRESENTING THE NUMBER 

Or TENSES IN EACH MODE THEIR SIGNS — AND THE 

MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE FORMED* 



WITH AN APPENDIX. 



BY ROSCOE G. GREENE, A. M. 



SentS 3S9ftion 



HALLO WELL, ME.i 

f GLAZIER, MASTERS, &, SMITH. 

: GOULD, KENDALL, & LINCOLN.— NEW YORK: EZRA COLLIER.— 
PHILADELPHIA: HOGAN & THOMPSON.— HARTFORD: 
D. BURGESS & CO. 

1840. H 



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UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 



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PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 

IN WHICH THE 

PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED BY LINDLEY MURRAY 



ARE INCULCATED, AND HIS 



THEORY OF THE MODES 



IS CLEARLV ILLUSTRATED BY DIAGRAMS, REPRESENTING THE NUMBER 

OF TENSES IN EACH MODE THEIR SIGNS AND THE 

MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE FORMED. 



WITH AN APPENDIX. 



— 



BY ROSCOE G< GREENE, A. M. 



STewtlt Taxation, 



PORTLAND: 
WILLIAM HYDE 



1840. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, 

By Roscoe G. Greene, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maine. 






RECOMMENDATIONS. 



The Publishers solicit the attention of the public to the following cer- 
tificates of recommendation, given either by gentlemen who have wit- 
nessed the effects of Mr. Greene's system by a personal and critical 
examination of pupils instructed upon it — or by practical teachers, 
who have tested its utility by using it in their schools. 

u Messrs. Colman, Holden, & Co. 

" It has been suggested to me that you intend to publish the former part of 
Mr. Roscoe G. Greene's Grammar, as a Text-Book for the younger class 
of pupils. 

" This Grammar, in all its parts, needs no recommendation from myself. Its 
best praise is, that no other Grammar has to my knowledge been substituted 
for this, where it has been once introduced ; and I am of the opinion that no 
other can be substituted without injury. 

" Of all who have bestowed but even a cursory examination of the masterly 
manner in which the subject is presented to the mind of the pupil, I never 
knew an individual to withhold the fullest expression of his approbation. It 
unites in an eminent degree the qualities of comprehensiveness and concise- 
ness, of vigor and simplicity. The cheapness of the former part, printed sep- 
arately, will remove every impediment to the introduction of either the smaller 
or larger Grammar into every school throughout the State, as soon as its merits 
are known. B. CUSHMAN," 

Principal of the Portland Academy, 



w Mr. R» G. Greene has been for several years advantageously known 
for his success in teaching the principles of grammar. In his Grammar, of 
which a new and improved edition is now published, he has exhibited his own 
mode of teaching in so perspicuous and intelligible a manner, that any other 
teacher may easily pursue the same mode with similar success. The excel- 
lence of this method consists in presenting one thing only at a time, and that 
perfectly ; thus giving to the pupil a clear and distinct comprehension of every 
principle, before he advances to a new one. Under each rule he leaves noth- 
ing unexplained, which is necessary to be known, without embarrassing the 
subject with explanations that are unnecessary. The diagrams illustrating 
the variations of the verbs have the advantage of speaking to the eye as weU 
as the understanding ; and aid the learner at once in comprehending and re- 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 3 

membering the distinction of the tenses. His Grammar is far best, for begin- 
ners, of any with which 1 am acquainted ; and I am happy to learn, that the 
public is beginning to be sensible of its merits ) and that it is fast taking the 
place of the Grammars that have been, hitherto, used in our schools. 

ASHUR WARE," 
Judge of the U. S. District Court for Maine District, 
Formei ly Professor of Languages in Harvard College. 
" Portland, June 30, 1832/ 



" We have had the pleasure of witnessing the success of Mr. Roscoe G. 
Greene's mode of teaching English Grammar, by occasional examinations of 
a class of young pupils, in this town, to whom he was giving instruction on 
the subject. Although they had received but few lessons, and devoted little 
time to the study, the distinctness and accuracy with which they comprehend- 
ed whatever they had gone over, was strongly contrasted with the indefinite- 
ness and confusion which is usually perceptible in the minds of beginners, and 
demonstrated the excellence of the system of instruction adopted by Mr. 
Greene. 

" In his Grammar he has selected the general principles or definitions, which 
are necessary to be first understood by the learner, arranged them in a natural 
and progressive order, and presented tfiem unencumbered with superfluous 
matter, and, at the same time, illustrated by such a variety of judicious ex- 
amples for parsing, that the pupil may be made to understand clearly each 
principle as he advances. This we consider the distinguishing merit of the 
work, adapting it, in a superior degree, to the wants of our schools, and rec- 
ommending it to the favorable notice of the public. 

BENJAMIN TAPPAN,) Superintending 
ALLEN PUTNAM, > School Committee 
J. W. BRADBURY, y of Augusta." 
" Augusta, Dec. 29, 1832." 



" Mr. Hyde, 

" Sir : In answer to your request to the School Committee of Portland, 
in relation to Greene's Grammar, I am directed by that Board to reply, that 
it was introduced into our Public Schools more than three years since, and 
that it has superseded all others which were in use in said schools. 

Respectfullv yours, 

CHARLES HOLDEN, 

Secretary of the School Committee* 
"Portland, June 1,1832." 



" Greene's Grammar. — We have examined this book with great satis- 
faction. It is a decided advance upon all the other grammatical works which 
we have seen. It does not aim at new principles, but it introduces a new and 
improved arrangement of the parts of speech, and, by means of some visible 
representations, presents to the learner the powerful aids of association. Defi- 
nitions and rules are expressed in familiar language. Elementary works are 
often rendered unintelligible, and therefore irksome, by the premature use of 
scientific and technical words, of which the learner has never heard, and 
which are themselves to be explained in some subsequent page. To take a 
single instance ; what idea of the Article can a child form, by learning that it 
is a word prefixed to a Noun, while as yet he has never been informed what 
a Noun is? This evil, which is of frequent occurrence, Mr. Greene has hap- 
pily avoided. Parsing is connected with every exercise in this book, and the 
reasoning powers, rather than the memory, are called into action. 

" The great theorem in the philosophy of* the human mind, that only one thing 
ca» be leaded at one time, is the basis, of Mr. Greene's arrangement. Ac* 



4 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

cordingly the work is divided into lessons, in each of which a distinct piece of 
instruction is presented, care being taken that it contain no allusion to things 
which are yet to be learned. A method by which thought is directed singly 
and unconfusedly to a particular subject, till that subject be understood, is the 
perfection of teaching. 

" The foregoing opinion of Mr. Greene's book has been formed, not merely 
ffom examining the work itself, but also from witnessing, to some extent, in 
his grammar class in this town, the ease and pleasure with which the pupils 
appeared to imbibe the principles inculcated in his series of lessons. We are 
gratified that this book is already so much in use. It is now in its third edi 
tion. We commend it to the public, believing that its introduction into our 
schools will be a valuable advancement in the means of diffusing a knowledge 
of the English Grammar. ' SAMUEL E. SMITH, 

NATHAN WESTON, 
ASA REDINGTON, Jr. 
JOHN POTTER, 
WILLIAMS EMMONS, 
DANIEL WILLIAMS, 
LUTHER SEVERANCE, 
EDMUND T. BRIDGE, 
" Augusta, January, 1833. JAMSS BRIDGE, Jr." 



" Having introduced the Grammar of Mr. R. G. Greene into the school un- 
der my charge, and tested its utility in communicating a knowledge of the 
principles of English Grammar to beginners in the study of that science, I gave 
it as my opinion, that his arrangement of the subject matter, and particularly 
his mode of illustrating the modes and tenses of the verbs, were far prefera- 
ble to any other which I had seen, and that I believed that wherever his book 
was used and his plan pursued, much time and labor would be saved both to 
the teacher and the pupil. Since that time, now upwards of three years, I 
have continued to use the work in my school, and the result has been fully to 
confirm me in the opinions I had expressed. 

" This work offers important advantages in another respect, not to be de- 
rived from any other with which I am acquainted, particularly to those engaged 
in our common schools; which, in the present order of things, are committed 
to the charge, for the most part, of persons whose acquaintance with the sci- 
ence of teaching must necessarily be limited. The arrangement of the les- 
sons being natural, regular and progressive, and the directions given over each 
being clear and distinct, the labors of any teacher, well versed in the principles 
of English Grammar, if he follow these directions, cannot fail to be attended 
with complete success. H. JACKSON," 

Teacher of the Monitorial School No* j, 

" Portland, April 28th, 1832." 

" I have examined Mr. Greene's l Practical Grammar of the English Lan- 
guage,' with much pleasure and satisfaction — and am decidedly of opinion 
that it is much better adapted to the wants of youth in acquiring a grammatical 
knowledge of our language, than any system I have met with ; and, having 
witnessed the success of his mode of teaching, at a personal examination of a 
class of young pupils under his instruction, I do not hesitate to recommend the 
work for introduction into the public schools of this State. 

" Augusta, January 4, 1833. ALBERT SMITH." 



*' Having examined the Grammar recently published by Roscoe G. Greene, 
Esq., and having heard the recitations of a class under his care, we are pre- 
pared to recommend his system of Grammar to the favorable notice of the 
public, and to the attention of the Agents and Teachers of our common schools, 



RECOMMENDATIONS, 



in particular, as better calculated to facilitate learners in acquiring this branch 
of knowledge than any other now in use, with which we are acquainted. 

LEMUEL PORTER, Jr. 
" Augusta, Jan. 1, 1833. J. C. MORRILL." 



" Messrs. Shirley & Hyde, 

" Gentlemen : Having used Mr. Greene's Grammar in my School for a num- 
ber of months past, I do not hesitate to say that, for its simplicity and concise- 
ness, (the two most essential requisites in a Text Book for Schools,) I consider 
it entitled to a high degree of merit. 

JOSEPH LIBBEY," 

Teacher Classical School. 



" Having attended an examination of a class of young pupils, who had re- 
ceived twenty lessons in English Grammar from their instructor, Mr. R. G. 
Greene, I am able to express my entire concurrence in the opinion heretofore 
certified from various quarters in regard to his qualification and success in this 
department of instruction. I have never witnessed any other instance of such 
proficiency in so short a time. Mr. Greene's instruction illustrates, very for- 
cibly, the importance of presenting a complicated subject to young minds in 
distinct and successive portions, and of constantly calling the attention to the 
reasons and general principles which appertain to that subject." 

Hon. "JOSEPH G. KENDALL, A. M." 

Late a Tutor in Harvard College* 

" Leominster (Ms.), May 24, 1823." 



Tlie following is from the Daily Courier (Portland!) of Jan. 18th, 1831. 

" Greene's Grammar. — We would call the attention of our readers to 
the notices, in the advertising columns of this paper, of an English Grammar 
by Roscoe G. Greene. We have been acquainted with Mr. Greene, and his 
mode of instruction in English Grammar, for seven or eight years, and cheer- 
fully record our testimony with the writers of the notices alluded to, in favor 
of the value of the work, and the worthiness of the author. This Grammar is 
used in the principal Public Schools in this town by direction of the School 
Committee, and has also been introduced into many of the private schools. 
And we understand it has been adopted to considerable extent in the schools in 
other parts of the State. 

" On this subject at least, we are decidedly in favor of the u American System," 
and are so much in favor of encouraging domestic manufactures, that when 
we find a citizen among us has prepared a book better suited to the instruc- 
tion of our children, than any imported, we are disposed to use it, and to rec- 
ommend it to the use of others. We therefore recommend to all who are 
interested in schools to examine the Grammar in question." 



" Portland English High School, Feb. 25, 1830. 
" To the Publishers, — 

" Gentlemen : I cannot better express my opinion of Mr. R. G. Greene's 
Grammar than by assuring you that I highly approve the School Committee's 
selection of it for this school. J. M. PURINTON, Teacher ." 



" Portland, June 5, 1832. 
11 Mr. Greene, — Sir : I have examined your English Grammar, and am 
prepared to say, that I consider it the simplest and best arranged introduction 
to a grammatical knowledge of our language, which I have yet had occasion 
to use in my school. JAMES FURBISH," 

Principal of the Female High School. 
I* 



D RECOMMENDATIONS. 

" The undersigned, having witnessed the examination of a class in English 
Grammar under the tuition of Mr. R. G. Greene of this town, and feeling de- 
sirous to promote the diffusion of the best principles of education, as well as to 
do an act of justice to Mr. Greene as an instructor, deem it proper to state the 
following facts : — 

"The class examined in our presence consisted of seven ladies. They had 
received twenty daily lessons, of one hour each, and stated that they had not 
devoted more than one additioiial hour to the study, upon an average, each day, 
making the whole not to exceed forty hours. Most of them, when they com- 
menced this course of lessons, were entirely unacquainted with the principles 
of Grammar. They now appeared \o be familiar with all the pints of speech 
and their various modifications, could readily pane any simple construction of 
the English language, and answer the most dime alt questions with respect to 
the formation of the several modes and tenses. 

" It appeared to us that the progress of this class, for the time tliey had de- 
voted to the study, had been much greater than is usually made in our schools 
under the ordinary mode of instruction, and we cheerfully recommend to pub- 
lic patronage both the system and the man." 

" ALBION K. P ARRIS." Governor of the State of Maine. 
Rev. " ASA RAND," Editor Boston Recorder. 
"SEBA SMITH, Jr." A.M. 

" Portland, July 29, 1823." 

"At the rcf.ue&t cf Mr. R. G. Greene, we visited a school instructed by 
him in English Grammar. He appears to us well qualified for performing this 
duty. From the rapid proficiency made by his pupils, and from the critical 
and thorough examination which we attended, we cheerfully recommend his 
course of instruction, as highly favorable for young men and women, who, in 
the present arrangement of our schools, have but a short season for literary 
improvement.' 

" NATHANIEL THAYER," D. D. 

"NATHANIEL WOOD," A. B*. Late Tutor Harvard Cott. Cam. 

"Lancaster (Ms.), Jan. 13, 1823." 



" Dear Sir : So far as I have had opportunity to examine your Grammar 
of the English Language, I am satisfied that, while it does not, and should not, 
aim at originality of matter, its arrangements, and very appropriate examples 
for illustration, \\ill be found by the teacher well adapted to lead the learner, 
step by step, through the elementary forms of the language, till he is able to 
understand, if not in some cases to anticipate, the generalizations which are 
given in that part of the Treatise which follows the elementary instructions. 

Respectfully, your obedient servant. 
S. ADAMS," 
Principal of the High School for Females. 
"Mr. R. G Greene. 

" Portland, December 18, 1828." 



" Having attended an examination of young pupils instructed in English 
Grammar upon Mr. Greene's system, we fully concur in the opinio u expressed 
in the preceding testimonials in regard to the merits of his work. 
ALLEN H. COBB, } 

NATHANIEL CLARK, f Members of 

ALFRED PIERCE, > Er.eruti.be Council 

CHARLES PEAVEY, V for 1832, 

SAMUEL P. STRICKLAND," J 
"Augusta, January, 1832." 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



That there are many particulars in the science of English Grammar, 
which cannot to advantage be presented to young learners, is too well 
known to eveiy teacher to be disputed. And next in importance to a 
proper selection of the subject matter to be presented, man Elementary 
School Book, is a lucid and natural arrangement of its several parts. 
Experience has shown, that minuteness of detail, and unnecessary atten- 
tion to matters of secondary importance, hi elementary works, have an 
unfavorable effect. The attention of the learner is thus divided, his 
memory overburdened, his mind hurried and perplexed, and, conse- 
quently, his impressions are indistinct and confused. Most of the sys- 
tems of English Grammar now in use, are faulty in these particulars. It 
appears to have been the principal object of their authors and compilers, 
tc render the services of living teachers unnecessary. Instead of pre- 
paring Compends suited to the wants of our schools," they have formed 
Cyclopedias. 

By attempting to do through books what can be done to advantage by 
the living teacher only, — blending primary principles with particulars 
of minor importance, — adding notes, remarks, observations, and philo- 
sophical strictures, to familiar lectures, a " wilderness of words " is preseuted 
to the learner, the meaning of a great part of which he is not prepared 
to understand. Critical notes are urged upon his attention before first 
principles are understood, and exceptions to rules, before he has just 
views of their practical application. Indeed, so far have some carried 
this notion of "teaching by wholesale," that they have offered, as the 
principal recommendation of their works, the fact, that they " present 
the whole field of grammar at one view." However useful books of 
this character may be for reference, they are not suitable for schools. 

This work is formed on a different plan. The science is here 
" stripped of every thing but the essentials." It is indeed, what it pro- 
fesses to be — a Text Book for Schools. No principle is anticipated. 
Each lesson prepares the mind of the pupil for that which is to follow, 
and he advances, step by step, from the simple to the abstruse parts of 
the subject. 

To impress the principles of the science on the mind of the learner 
by exercising his judgment, is the object of the work — therefore, in the 
first lessons, no explanations are given, nor secondary distinctions made, 
that are not absolutely necessary to elucidate the Rules and Definitions. 
Formed on the maxim, that the narrow limits of the human mind will 
not allow it to consider more than one idea at the same time, it is partic- 
ularly adapted to the wants of beginners in the study ; and, if used by 
youth of suitable age, under the direction of a teacher who, knowing his 
duty, is willing to perform it (to teach his pupils rather than order them to 
learn), it is believed that many of the difficulties, usually experienced in 
acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, will be obviated. 



In selecting materials for the following pages, though the system of 
Lindley Murray was considered the standard, other eminent writers on 



8 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

Grammar were consulted, and their opinions, in some instances, adopted. 
It was not, however, the design of the compiler to make innovations in 
the science itself, but to present an improved method of teaching it — to 
give to long established principles, a form at once simple and interesting. 

That oral instruction is calculated to make a more lasting impression 
on the mind, than that received solely from books, will, he thinks, be 
admitted by all who are acquainted with the difficulties of teaching this 
science. He has, therefore, presented nothing, in the first lessons, but 
the Definitions, Rules and Examples, necessary for practice in parsing ; 
leaving it for the instructor to supply whatever maybe found necessary, 
by verbal illustration. 

The verb, by beginners in the study, is found the most difficult part of 
Grammar — not difficult in itself, but made so by the different forms 
which it takes, and the great variety of changes it undergoes in passing 
through the modes and tenses. To obviate the evil thus occasioned, 
and give facility and interest to the labors of the young learner, the 
compiler has formed diagrams of the several modes ; presenting, at one 
view, the number of tenses in each, their signs, and the manner in which 
they are formed. 

The utility of these diagrams has been fully tested, and when used 
according to the directions, they have been found as useful in the study 
of the modes and tenses, as maps have in the study of Geography. 

Experience has abundantly shown to every teacher of Grammar, that 
learners, especially young learners, find much difficulty in committing to 
memory the variations of the verb, in the several modes and tenses, and 
still more in understanding and retaining them. Something more than 
the mere metaphysical distinctions conveyed by words seems to be 
necessary to render the first efforts of beginners in the study successful 
and pleasant. A striking view of suitable objects, under such modifica- 
tions as suggest and illustrate the proper distinctions, and afford, at a 
glance, the means of comparing the modes and the tenses one with 
another, undoubtedly possesses, for untutored minds, great advantages 
over the explanations usually given of these important modifications of 
the verb. Every person who has observed the operations of his own 
mind, must have felt the power of external objects in calling up a train 
of ideas, which for years may not have recurred to him. 

Reflection will always effectually serve those, who, in arranging their 
ideas, employ the principle of local association. When they touch upon 
a link of the well-united chain, " whether tenth or ten thousandth," they 
are able to follow the successive connection to each extremity. 

It is on this unfailing principle of local association, that these diagrams 
are formed. 

" All the signs by which our thoughts are expressed," says Dugald 
Stewart, "are addressed either to the eye or to the ear; and the impres- 
sions made on these organs, at the time when we first receive an idea, 
contribute to give us a firmer hold of it. Visible objects are remembered 
more easily than those of any other of our senses ; and hence it is, that 
the bulk of mankind are more aided in their recollection by impressions 
made on the eye, than by those made on the ear. Every person must 
have remarked, in studying the elements of geometry, how much his 
recollection of the theorems was aided by the diagrams which are con- 
nected with them. This advantage, which the objects of sight naturally 
have over those of hearing, in the distinctness and permanence of the 
impression which they make on the memory, continues, and even in 
creases, through life, in the case of the bulk of mankind." 



TO TEACHERS. 



On the Use of the Work. — It is recommended to teachers who may use 
this work, to commence their course of instruction (see pages 15 and 16) by 
explaining to their pupils or Class the nature of the Noun, and three of its 
four properties, viz., Person, Number, and Gender ; illustrating viva voce their 
definitions by examples containing the names of familiar objects of sight. 
When the members of the Class (in examples thus given by the teacher) can 
readily distinguish the Noun, they should be required to parse the examples 
prepared for that purpose ; the teacher going through with the first example 
— thus, 

"Men {arc seen.) " 

Men is a noun — of the third person — plural number — masculine gender. Each 
member of the Class should, in his turn, parse an example in the same 
manner. When the members of the Class can readily parse the examples given 
under Lesson I, they should be required to answer the questions at the bottom 
of the page. The business of the members of the Class, previous to the time 
appointed for the succeeding lesson, should not be to commit to memory what 
they cannot understand without proper explanation from the teacher, but, by 
repeating the exercise, to make themselves perfectly acquainted with the mode 
of parsing the noun, and with answers to the questions relating to it and its prop- 
erties. This lesson will require the attention of the teacher from twenty to thirty 
minutes, according to the number of members of which the Class may consist. 
Lesson II. As it is by repetition only that ideas on any abstruse subject can 
be permanently fixed in the youthful mind, before the exercises in Lesson II. 
are commenced, the Class should be required to repeat Lesson I. — slowly and 
distinctly, parsing the examples, and answering the questions as before. This 
having been done, the teacher should explain, in as few words as possible, the 
nature of the Adjective, its office, and its connection with the noun; illustra- 
ting his remarks by introducing, as in the preceding lesson, the names of fa- 
miliar objects, the qualities of which are obvious to the senses. This having 
been done, the teacher should parse the first example (on page 17), and apply 
Rule 1 ; thus, 

" Large ships (are seen.) " 

Large is an adjective, and belongs to ships. (Repeat Rule 1.) Skips is a noun 
— of the third person — plural number — neuter gender. Each member of the 
Class should now, in his turn, be required to parse an example in the same 
manner. When this exercise is fully understood, the questions thereon, at the 
bottom of the page, should be answered, as in Lesson I. In introducing each 
succeeding lesson, the teacher should proceed in the same manner, showing, 
as he advances, the practical application of every new principle. He should on 
no account allow his pupils to proceed to a new lesson, until the one under 
consideration is thoroughly understood. 

The Modes and Tenses. — To illustrate these complicated and perplexing 
parts of the science, Diagrams, representing the several modes, are presented, 
showing the number of tenses in each, their signs, and the manner in which 
they are formed. If, instead of requiring his pupils to commit to memory the 
conjugations of the verbs (a most irksome task), the teacher will call their 
attention to these Diagrams, and, by aid of these, instruct them how to form 
the several tenses of the respective modes, it is believed, that he will not only 
save, both to himself and them, much time and labor, but will find that these 
distinctions will be far better understood and longer remembered than when 
they are committed to memory in the usual way. 



10 TO TEACHERS, 



Explanation of the Diagram representing the Indicative Mode* 

(Page 35.) 

This Diagram is divided into six squares, to represent the six tenses of the 
Indicative Mode. The first square represents the present tense, and the second, 
the imperfect. These being simple tenses (formed without the aid of auxili- 
aries), the squares representing them contain nothing but the pronouns with 
which, in conjugating, the verb write and its imperfect tense (wrote) are united. 

The third square represents the perfect tense ; the signs of which are have and 
its variations. 

The perfect tense is formed by prefixing the sign, have, hast, or has, to the 
perfect participle (icritten) — indicated by the line of reference connecting 
the former with the latter — forming the phrases, I have written ; Thou hast 
written ; He has written, &c. 

The fourth square represents the pluperfect tense ; the signs of which are had 
and its variation. 

The pluperfect tense is formed by prefixing the sign, had or hadst, to the per- 
fect participle (written), as is indicated by a line of reference connecting the 
former with the latter — forming the phrases, I had written; Thou hadst writ- 
ten ; He had written, &c. 

The fifth square represents the first future tense; the signs of which are shall 
and will, and their variations. 

The first future tense is formed by prefixing the sign, shall or will, shalt or 
wilt, to the present tense of the verb (write) — indicated by the line of refer- 
ence connecting the former with the latter — forming the phrases, I shall or will 
write ; Thou shalt or wilt write ; He shall or will write, &c. 

The sixth square represents the second future tense ; the signs of which are 
shall have and will have, and their variations. 

The second future tense is formed by prefixing the sign, shall have* or will 
have, to the perfect participle (written) — indicated by the line of reference con- 
necting the former with the latter — forming the phrases, I shall have written; 
Thou wilt have written ; He will have written, &c. 



Explanation of the Diagram representing the Subjunctive Mode. 

(Page 37.) 

This Diagram is divided into six squares, to represent the six tenses of the 
Subjunctive Mode. The names of these tenses are like those of the indicative ; 
viz., the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and 
the second. Each tense has the same sign, and it is formed in the same manner 
as its correspondent tense in the indicative mode. 



Explanation of the Diagram representing the Potential Mode. 

(Page 39.)' 

This Diagram is divided into four squares, to represent the four tenses of 
the Potential Mode. The first represents the present tense ; the second, the 
imperfect ; the third, the perfect ; and the fourth, the pluperfect. 

The signs of the present tense are may and can, and their variations. 

The present tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the sign, may 
or can, to the verb (strike) — indicated by the line of reference connecting the 
former with the latter — forming the phrases, I may or can strike ; Thou 
mayst or canst strike ; He may or can strike, &c. 

The signs of the imperfect tense are might, could, would, and should, and 
their variations. 

* The words, "shall have" are taken together as a, phrase,, and they are,. therefor*?,. called 
" the sign," &c. 



TO TEACHERS. 11 

The imperfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the sign, 
might, could, would, or should, to the verb (strike) — indicated by the line of 
reference connecting the former with the latter — forming the phrases, I might, 
could, would, or should strike ; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
strike ; He might, could, would, or should strike, &c. 

The signs of the perfect tense are may have, and can have, and their variations. 

The perfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the sign, 
may have or can have, to the perfect participle (struck) — indicated by the 
line of reference connecting the former with the latter — forming the phrases, 
I may have or can have struck ; Thou mayst have or canst have struck \ He 
may have or can have struck, &c. 

The signs of the pluperfect tense are might Jiave, could have, would have, and 
should have, and their variations. 

The pluperfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the sign, 
might have, could have, would have, or should have, to the perfect participle 
(struck) — indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the 
latter — forming the phrases, I might have, could have, would have, or should 
have struck ; Thou mightst have, couldst have, wouldst have, or shouldst have 
struck j He might have, could have, would have, or should have struck, &c. 

Explanation of the Diagram representing the Infinitive Mode* 

(Page 41.) 

This Diagram is divided into two squares, to represent the tenses of the 
Infinitive Mode. The first square represents the present tense, which is formed 
by prefixing to (the sign of the infinitive mode) to the verb (go)- -indicated 
by the line of reference connecting the former with the latter — forming the 
phrase, To go. 

The second square represents the perfect tense, which is formed by prefix- 
ing to have to the perfect participle (gone) — indicated by the line of refer- 
ence connecting the former with the latter — forming the phrase, To have 
gone. 

Explanation of the Diagram representing the Imperative Mode. 

(Page 43.) 
The Diagrams representing the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, 
and the Infinitive Mode, are divided, to indicate the number of tenses in 
each mode ; viz., that representing the Indicative Mode, into six squares, to 
show that that mode has six tenses * that representing the Subjunctive, into 
the same number ; that representing the Potential, into four ; that representing 
the Infinitive, into two ; but the Imperative having but one tense, the Diagram 
representing it, remains entire. 

* # * Pupils should be required to commit to memory the examples given (at 
the top of the 34th page) to illustrate the variations of the verb (write), on ac- 
count of person and number, before their attention is called to the distinction 
of tense, as exhibited by the Diagram on the opposite page. 

O* In explaining the Diagrams (see page 35), the teacher should call the 
attention of the pupil, or the class under instruction, to the figures (representing 
the Nominatives to the verb), the relative positions of which are intended to 
indicate the state of the action represented by the several tenses. For exam- 
ple : — The figure (or nominative) in the first square of the Diagram (Pres. 
Tense) is in the act of writing, and may be supposed to say, " I (now) write ; " 
— that in the second square (Imper. Tense) having some time since completed 
the action of writing — " I wrote " (yesterday) ; — that in the third square (Perfect 
Tense) having just finished the action of writing — " I have (just) written," &c. 



12 TO TEACHERS. 



Government of the Infinitive Mode. 

No subject connected with the science of English Grammar has been more fully discussed 
than the government of the infinitive mode ; nor is there any, concerning which the opinions of 
philologists are more contradictory and perplexing. Every thing relating to it seems to be in- 
volved in mystery. Even the preposition, to, commonly considered the sign of the infinitive 
mode, has been differently understood and variously explained. According to Horne Tooke, 
to is derived from the same root as do (the Gothic noun taui, or tauhts, signifying act, effect, end, 
consummation,) and is an auxiliary verb. And " when the old termination of Saxon verbs (i. e. 
an) was dropped, this word to (i. e. act) became necessary to be prefixed, in order to distinguish 
them from nouns." [See Diversions of Purley, Vol. ], p. 286.] Richardson says that to (i. e. 
act) prefixed to nouns, invests such nouns with a verbal character. [See his " New Dictionary 
of the English Language," Article Do.] Skinner, an eminent etymologist of the sixteenth 
century, calls to " an equivocal article." Lowth remarks that " the preposition to, placed before 
the verb, makes the infinitive mode." [See Introduction to English Grammar, p. 102.] "He 
would," says Horne Tooke, " have said more truly, that to, placed before some nouns, makes 
verbs." Cobbett expresses the opinion, that to of itself is a preposition ; but, when it is pre- 
fixed to verbs, that it is a mere sign of the infinitive mode. In relation to which Lewis says, 
"to or do is a great deal more than a mere sign of the infinitive mode; it is indeed the verb- 
malcer." [Lewis's Grammar, Lond. ed.] Doct. Gilchrist is of the opinion that the " prefixes 
to and do, and the affix eth, have the same origin." [See his Philosophical Etymology.] John- 
son, Walker, and some other lexicographers, call to an adverb [to, Saxon ; te, Dutch] ; as, "1 
love to read." It is a circumstance worthy of notice, that neither Harris nor Bishop Lowth, 
in the works referred to (from which the Grammar of Murray was principally taken), has said 
any thing concerning the government of verbs in the infinitive mode. Harris, however, expresses 
the opinion, that a verb in the infinitive mode " naturally coalesces with those verbs that denote 
any tendence, desire, or volition of the soul; but not readily with any other." Lewis is silent in 
regard to the government of verbs in this mode, but says, that they "may depend on verbs, parti- 
ciples, adjectives, and nouns." Murray gives the following rule: " One verb governs another 
that follows it, and depends upon it, in the infinitive mode " — assigning to verbs only the power 
of governing other verbs in the infinitive mode. In a subsequent remark, however, Murray says 
"that verbs in the infinitive are frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and parti- 
ciples ; " by which it is believed that he meant nothing more than that verbs in this mode natu- 
rally follow the parts of speech named, and readily coalesce with them. But on this remark is 
founded the rule, " The infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or participle." 

Now, when the force of the definition of government, given by Murray, is considered, viz., 
" Government is the influence which one word has over another in directing its case, mode, or 
tense," inasmuch as verbs in the infinitive as readily coalesce with pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, 
and conjunctions, as with the parts of speech named in the preceding rule, the exceptions to it 
must, necessarily, be numerous and perplexing. These considerations have led the writer of 
this' article to the conclusion, that the rule given by many of the modifiers of the system of Mur- 
ray, for the government of verbs in the infinitive mode, is inapplicable to the English language, 
and that the time spent in endeavoring to apply it, is little better than lost. And the fact that 
this rule has been discarded (or considered of too little consequence to be noticed) by many 
eminent teachers and philologists, gives him confidence that his conclusions in relation to it are 
correct. 

Comly, whose Grammar has, for many years, been extensively used in the Middle and West- 
ern States, says that verbs in the infinitive mode are governed by the preposition to ; and G. 
Brown adopts a similar rule. 

Noah Webster devotes a number of pages of his new work, " An Improved Grammar of the 
English Language," to explaining the infinitive mode ; and he gives no less than four rules to 
illustrate its nature and use ; but he says nothing concerning the rule under consideration, nor, 
indeed, concerning the government of verbs in this mode — omissions which would not have been 
likely to occur, had he considered such a rule necessary to a correct understanding of the Eng- 
lish language . [ See 40 th page of the following work. ] 

The following, from gentlemen whose knowledge of the languages (ancient as well as modern), 
and their eminent success as practical teachers, entitle their opinions on this subject to great 
weight, is respectfully submitted in support of the views advanced in this article, in relation to 
the government of the infinitive mode. 



It is the opinion of the undersigned, that rules " assigning to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, &c. 
the government [as this term is defined by grammarians] of the infinitive mode," are not founded 
on the principles of the English language, nor applicable to it ; the exceptions to such rules 
being so numerous and perplexing as to defeat the very object intended to be accomplished by 
their application. 

" JOSEPH LIBBEY," Principal of Portland High School. 

" B. CUSHMAN," Preceptor of Portland Academy. 

" SOLOMON ADAMS," Principal of the Free Street Seminary for Females. 

" JAMES FURBISH," Principal of Westbrook Seminary. 

"HEZEKIAH PACKARD," Principal of the Free Street Classical School. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the art or science by which persons are 
instructed to speak and write the English language correctly. 

It is divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody. 

This division may be rendered more intelligible to the student, 
by observing, that grammar treats, 

JFirst, of the forms and sounds of letters, the combination of let- 
ters into syllables, and syllables into words; 

Secondly, of the different sorts of words, and of their derivations 
and various modifications ; 

Thirdly, of the just arrangement of words in the formation of 
sentences ; 

Fourthly, of the just pronunciation and poetical construction of 
sentences. 

Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species — Uni- 
versal and Particular. Universal grammar explains the principles 
which are common to all languages. Particular grammar applies 
those general principles to a particular language, modifying them 
according to the genius of that tongue, and the established practice 
of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the nature and power of letters, and the just 
method of spelling words. 

[Orthography is a word compounded of two Greek words; it means, literally, the 
right method of spelling words.] 

A letter is a character used in writing to represent an articulate sound. 
An articulate sound is a sound of the human voice. 

Questions. 

What is ENGLISH GRAMMAR ?-How is it divided ?— How may grammar be 
considered ? — What does universal grammar explain ? — To what does particular gram- 
mar apply ? — What does orthography teach ? — VVhat is a letter ? — What is an articulate 
sound? 

2 



'r/. 



14 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

In the English alphabet there are twenty-six letters ; A, B, C, D, E, F, 
G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. 

The letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly uttered by itself; as, a, e, o. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered without the 
help of a vowel ; as, b, d,f, I. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

Wand y are consonants when they precede a vowel in the same sylla- 
ble ; as, wine, twine, youth : in other situations, they are vowels. 

The consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

A mute cannot be sounded at all without the help of a vowel. The 
mutes are b, d, k, p, q, t, aud c and g hard. 

A semi-vowel can be imperfectly sounded without the help of a vowel. 
The semi-vowels are/, h,j, I, m, n, r, 5, v, x, z, and c and g soft Of these, 
/, m, n, and r, are called liquids, on account of their readily uniting with 
consonants, and flowing, as it were, into their sounds. 

SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced by a single impulse of 
the voice, constituting either a word, or a part of a word; as, a, an, ant, 

A word is one or more syllables, spoken or written as the sign of 
some idea. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word of two sylla- 
bles, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a trisyllable ; and a word of 
four or more syllables, a polysyllable. 

A diphthong is formed by the union of two vowels pronounced by a 
single impulse of the voice ; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, 
oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels is 
sounded ; as, oa in boat. 

A triphthong is formed by the union of three vowels ; as, eau in beau> 
iew in view. 

Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or 
compound. 

A primitive word is one which cannot be reduced to any simpler word 
in the language ; as, man, boy, connect. 

A derivative word is one which may be reduced to a word of greater 
simplicity ; as, manful, boyish, connected. 

A simple word is one that is not compounded ; as, loatch, man. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple 
words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. 

Questions. 

How many LETTERS are there in the English Alphabet? — How are the letters 
divided 1 — What is a vowel ? — What is a consonant ? — What letters are vowels ? — 
When are w and y consonants, and when vowels ? — How are the consonants divided ? 
— What is a mute? — What is a semi-vowel ? — What is a syllable ? — What is a word? 
— What is a word of one syllable called ? — What is a word of two syllables called ? 
— What is a word of three syllables called ? — What is a word of four or more syl- 
lables called ? — What is a diphthong 1 — What is a proper diphthong ? — What is an 
improper diphthong ? — What is a triphthong ? — What is a proper triphthong ? — What is 
an improper triphthong ? — How are words distinguished ? — What is a primitive word ? 
— What is a derivative word ?— What is a simple word ? — What is a compound 
word ? 



OHTH0GHAPHY. 



SPELLING. 



15 



As a knowledge of this important art is usually acquired by means 
of the Spelling Book and Dictionary, and by close attention to the forms 
of words, in reading and writing, rather than by the study of formal 
rules for spelling, in works on grammar, it is thought to be unneces- 
sary to give such rules in this compend. 

It is, perhaps, says an acute writer on grammar, impossible to lay 
down practicable rules for spelling the English language ; the excep- 
tions to general rules being so numerous, as to confuse rather than in- 
struct him who shall endeavor, through their medium, to acquire the art 
of spelling. Nor is the common method of teaching this art, by making 
the pupil commit to memory a number of words irom his Spelling Book 
or Dictionary, a good one. A boy may have learned to spell, in this 
manner, every word in the language, and yet not be able to write a single 
sentence, without, making several orthographical mistakes. In fact, I 
never knew a boy, taught solely by the common method, that could spell 
correctly, or according to present usage. It is by writing the words, and 
copying from printed books, that persons can effectually acquire the art 
of spelling. The best and most expeditious method of teaching to spell, 
is for the tutor to read slowly to his pupils a portion oi' any proper book, 
and for them to take it down on their slates in writing ; when this is 
done, the tutor must point out those words which are incorrect, and 
direct the pupil to look into the Dictionary to correct them. By this 
means, more may be learned of the art of spelling in a few days, than 
can, by any other, in as many months. Those who are desirous of 
teaching themselves, can easily procure some one to read to them ; or 
they may write down any passages that they recollect of a book, and 
afterwards correct them by the original. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, and of their 
derivations, and various modifications to express different meanings 
and relations. 

[Etymology is compounded of two Greek words, which signify origin and word. It 
means, literally, the descent or derivation of a word from its original.]" 3 

The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treats of the agree- 
ment and arrangement of words in a sentence. 

[Syntax is derived from the Greek syntaxis, which is itself a compound of syn, with 
and taxis, order or arrangement.] . : 

Parsing. To parse a word, is to tell the part of speech to which it 
belongs, and name its properties, &c. 

Questions. 

Of what does ETYMOLOGY treat ?-Of what does syntax treat ?— What is meant 
by parsing" a word ? 






16 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON I. 

OF NOUNS. A Noun is the name of any thing that we can 
see, taste, hear, smell, feel, or conceive of. 

Nouns have four properties, viz. Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 

Of Person. By Person, in grammar, are meant the variations in the form of words 
(and their different relations in a sentence or discourse) which distinguish the speaker, 
the person spoken to, and the person or the thing spoken of. 

There are three persons, viz. the first, the second, and the third. 

The first person denotes the speaker 3 the second, the person spoken to 5 and the third, 
the person or the thing spoken of. 

Of Number. By Number, in grammar, are meant the variations in the form ol 
nouns (and pronouns) which distinguish unity and plurality. 
Nouns have two numbers, viz. the singular and the plural. 
The singular number denotes but one object j the plural, more than one. 

Of Gender. By Gender, in grammar, are meant the forms, or the variations in the 
forms, of nouns (and pronouns) which distinguish objects in regard to sex. 

There are three genders, viz. the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes animals of the male kind 5 the feminine, animals of the 
female kind 5 the neuter, objects neither male nor female. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil to name the part of speech given, and tell its persont number, 

and gender. 



Men 

Women 
Trees 

Wines 
Apples 
Plums 

Music 

Thunder 

Echo 

Odor 

Incense 

Perfume 

Joy 

Fear 
Hope 

Time 
Space 
Vacuity 



are seen, 
are tasted, 
is heard, 
is smelled* 
is felt, 
is conceived qfl 



Questions* 

What is a NOUN ? — How many properties have nouns ?— What are they called 7— 
What is meant by person 1 — How many persons have nouns V— What does each person 
denote ? — What is number ?•— How many numbers have nouns ? — What are they called ? 
—What does the singular number denote ?— What does the plural number denote ? 
—What is meant by gender ? — How many genders are there ?— What does each gen- 
der denote ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 17 

LESSON II. 

OF ADJECTIVES. An Adjective is a word added to a noun 
(or a pronoun) to express some quality of, or circumstance respect- 

st d 6 PerS ° n ° r the thing ' f ° r Which the n ° Un ^° r the P ronoun ) 

Adjectives have, commonly, no modification but comparison. 

d£^^nZ^1^^ adJeCtiVGj t0 ^^ *»"* in d « 

anl fe^£ dGgreeS ° f COm ™ n > ?* ^ P°^™> ^e comparative, 

form hG f.°wL e degr f is fl f x P ressed b 7 th * adjective in its simple or primitive 
•££' ™J^ ' gr6a l ; Z ih % Con ?P aratl T e > b y adding r or er to the positive ; as, 
^ZtfgrTestT Superlative, by adding st or est to the positive! as', 

Rule 1. Every adjective belongs to some noun (or pronoun) 
expressed or understood. ' 

Examples to be Parsed, 

Inwhukilis ^redofthe pupil (in addition to parsing the nouns as in the preceding lesson) 
toparse the adjectives in connection with the nouns, and to apply Rule U 

Large ships } 

Green trees > are seen. 

Black clouds ) 

Sour grapes } 

Ripe apples i are tasted. 

Sweet plums ) 

Softer music ) 

Distant thunder > is heard. 
Loud laughter j 

Sweet fragrance ) 
Delightful odor i is smelled. 
Rich perfume ) 

Deep sorrow 

Ecstatic pleasure £ is felt. 

Greatest fear 

Future events 

Celestial regions S> are conceived of. 

Endless joys 

Questions. 

What is an ADJECTIVE ?— Have adjectives any modification ?— What is meant bv 
deX r fnr^l7? H many ^ de&reeS 1 °- com P aris ™ are there ?-How is the comparative 
S^S^aSS^I 8 ^ SUperIaUVe ^^ f ° rmCd ? ~ What m,e d °>™ S-e when 



/^^ 



18 



EXERCISES IN* 

LESSON III. 



OF ARTICLES. An Article is a word prefixed to nouns 
(and pronouns) to limit their signification. 

There are two articles. The is called the definite article ; an, ox 
a, the indefinite. 

An and a are one and the same article. An is used when the following 
word begins with a vowel sound; as, " an urn, an hour; " and a, when the 
following word begins with a consonant sound ; as, " a meadow, a horse," &c. 

Rule 2. The article refers to its noun {or pronoun) to limit its 
signification. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing- the adjectives, and the nouns, as in the pre- 
ceding lessons) to parse the articles, and give Rule 2. 



The largest vessels 
The tallest forests 
The brilliant stars 

The choicest fruits 
The ripest melons 
The finest wines 

A true report 
A distant sound 
A loud voice 

A sweet perfume 
A refreshing odor 
A delightful incense 

An acute pain 
An eager joy 
An ardent wish 

The celestial spheres 
The highest heavens 
The holy throngs 



are seen. 



are tasted. 



is heard. 



is smelled. 



is felt. 



are conceived of. 



Questions, 

What is an ARTICLE ?— How many articles are there ?— -Which is called the de- 
finite ?— Which is called the indefinite 7—When is a used ?— When is an used ?— What 
rule do you give when you parse an article ? 



The pupil should be required to repeat the Ruje applicable to each part of 
speech, as often as it occurs in the exercises, 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 19 

LESSON IV. 

OF VERBS. A Verb is a word which signifies action (being 
or suffering). 

An Active Verb denotes action, either physical or mental. 

Of Case. By case, in grammar, is meant the condition or the situation of 
nouns (and pronouns) in relation to other words in a sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, viz. the nominative, the possessive, and the ob- 
jective. 

The nominative case to an active verb denotes the doer of the action ex- 
pressed by the verb. 

Rule 3. A verb must agree with its nominative case in person 
and number. 



Examples to be Parsed, 

tn which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the articles, adjectives, and nouns, as in 
the preceding lessons) to tell the case of the nouns, distinguish the active verbs, give the per- 
son and number of each verb, and its agreement with its nominative, and apply Rule &. 

A brave soldier fights — 
The valiant hero conquers — 
The ripest apples fall — 
The lonely captive mourns — 
An industrious pupil studies — 
An imprudent youth suffers — 
The impious wretch trembles — 
A generous foe forgives — 
A wise man deliberates — 
The noble chief advances — 
The furious lion roars — 
The awful thunders roll — 
The smallest birds sing — 
An artful culprit begs — 
The young lady dances — 
An idle student plays — 
A careless reader blunders — 
The angry tempest rages — 
The foaming billows dash — 

Questions. 

What is a VERB ?— What is an active verb ?— What is case ?-How many 
cases have nouns ?— What does the nominative case to an active verb denote ?— 
What rule do you give when you parso a verb 1 



All words that express action, either physical or mental, are here called 



Active Verbs. 



,•• 



20 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON V. 

OF PARTICIPLES. A Participle is a word derived from a 
verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 

The present participle is formed by adding ing, to the verb ; as, speak, speak- 
ing ; fly, flying; go, going. [See Appendix, p. 132.] 

OF ADVERBS. An Adverb is a word which, generally, indi- 
cates manner, time, place, (or degree.) If added to an active verb, 
or its participle, it shows the time when, the place where, or the 
manner in which, the action expressed by such verb or partici- 
ple is done. [For further explanations see p. 83.] 

Adverbs are of different kinds ; as, of manner, time, place, (degree,) &c. 

Rule 4. Adverbs qualify verbs and participles. 
Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the articles, adjectives, nouns, and active 
' verbs, as in the preceding lessons) to distinguish the adverbs, point out the words they qualify, 
and apply Rule 4. 

The angry waves dash violently. 

The small bird sings sweetly. 

A prudent person speaks cautiously. 

A good servant labors faithfully ; 

A large stream flows rapidly. 

A swift horse trots nimbly. 

An old man walks slowly. 

A brave general embarks to-day. 
The old ship arrived yesterday. 
An able statesman speaks to-night. 
An industrious student improves daily. 

A large army encamped here. 
The stoutest yeomen march hither. 
A wealthy farmer lives there. 
The gallant stranger travels thither. 

Rule 5. Participles ending in ing relate to the nouns (or the 
pronouns) of which they express the action (state or being). 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (i?i addition to parsing the other words, as in the preceding lessons) 
to distinguish the present participles, tell what words they refer to, and apply Rule 5. 

Reading slowly, boys read correctly. 
Judging hastily, people judge erroneously. 

Questions* 

What is a PARTICIPLE ?— How is the present participle formed?— What is an 
ADVERB ? — How are adverbs divided ? — What rule do you give when you parse an 
adverb ?— What rule do you give when you parse a participle ? 



> Manner. 



Time. 



Place. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 21 

LESSON VI. 

ADVERBS OF DEGREE. The words very, quite, exceedingly, 
excessively, extremely, too, and some other words, are denominated 
Adverbs (ad-words) of Degree, when they are prefixed to adjectives, 
or to other adverbs. 

Rule 6. Adverbs of degree qualify adjectives and other adverbs. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the other words) to point out the adverbs 
of degree, tell what words they qualify, and apply Rule 6. 

Very large ships sail very rapidly. 

Quite small children read exceedingly well. 

OF PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun, to avoid too frequent a repetition of it. 

A Personal Pronoun is a kind of pronoun that shows by its form of what 
person it is. 

There are five personal pronouns, viz. I, thou, he, she, and it — with their 
plurals, we, ye, or you, they. 

DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
SINGULAR NUMBER. 



1st 
Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


person. 

i, 

Mine, 
Me; 


2d person. 3d per. mas. 
Thou, He, 
Thine, * His, 
Thee; Him; 

PLURAL DUMBER. 


3d per. fern. 
She, 
Hers, 
Her; 


3d. per. neut 

it, 

Its, 

It; 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


We, 
Ours, 

Us. 


Ye, or You, They, 
Yours, Theirs, 
You. Them. 


They, 

Theirs, 

Them. 


They, 

Theirs, 

Them. 



Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
decline and to parse the personal pronouns* 

An industrious boy studies — he learns exceedingly fast. 
A beautiful girl dances — she moves quite gracefully. 
The largest book falls — it falls very frequently. 
The young ladies sung — they sing extremely well, 
/write — thou writest — Rewrites. We read correctly. 
You walk. They play. We run. They work. 

Questions. 
What is a PRONOUN ? — What is a personal pronoun ? — How many personal pro- 
nouns are there T Name them. — Decline each person in the singular number anci 
the plural. 



22 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON VII. 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The words who, which, and 
that (when that can be changed into who or which) are Relative 
Pronouns. 

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or 
phrase. 

DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Who is applied only to persons. 

Sin. Norn. Who, Plu. Norn. Who, 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom; Obj. Whom. 

Which is applied to animals and things. 

Sin. Nom. Which, Plu. Norn. Which, 

Poss. Poss. 

Obj. Which; Obj. Which. 

That 2*5 applied to persons, animals, and things. 

Sin. Nom. That, Plu. Nom. That, 
Poss. Poss. 



Obj. That; Obj. That. 

Remark. — When no nominative comes between the relative pronoun and 
the verb, the relative is the nominative. 

Rule 7. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in 
person, number, and gender. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
decline and parse the relative pronouns, and apply Rule 7. 



men 



i 



The men ( who work well j labor very diligently. 

i horse > 

( which trots hard ) travels very rapidly. 



A horse 

horse 



( horse ) 

A horse ( that trots hard j travels very rapidly. 



(boy 



The boy ( that reads well | speaks very slowly. 

( man ) 



s 



The man ( who speaks to-day j spoke here yesterday. 

Questions* 

What words are called RELATIVE PRONOUNS ?— What does a relative pronoun 
represent ? — Decline the relative pronoun who. — To what is who applied 1 — Decline 
the relative which. — To what is which applied ? — Decline the relative that. — To what is 
that applied ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 23 

LESSON VIII. 

OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The words who, 
which, and what, when used in asking questions, are Interrogative 
Pronouns. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

Who labors here ? Which performs best 1 What floats hither ? 
Who speaks to-day? Which came hither yesterday? Who 
believes sincerely ? 

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Adjective Pronouns are of 
a mixed nature, partaking of the properties both of pronouns and 
of adjectives. 

There are five kinds of adjective pronouns. 

The Possessive are, my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 
" Distributive are, each, every, either. 

" Demonstrative are, this, that, these, those, former, and latter. 
" Indefinite are, some, one, any, other, all, such. 
" Interrogative are, which and what (when prefixed to nouns). 

Rule 8. Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or 
pronoun expressed or understood. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
parse the adjective pronouns, and apply Rule 8. 

My pupils improve daily. Thy son studies hard. His horse 
trots nimbly. Every child walks well. This^young lady dances 
gracefully. That man speaks wisely. Some people live care- 
lessly. Every pupil (that studies diligently) parses fluently. 
He (who speaks naturally) speaks eloquently. Those (who 
attend steadily) improve very fast. Good men live happily — 
they die cheerfully. Who sins knowingly 1 Which sings best ? 
That stream flows very rapidly. Our pupils parse exceedingly 
well. Which company meets to-day ? What officer commands 
here? 

Remark. — When the preceding adjective pronouns are not prefixed 
to nouns, they are parsed as pronouns merely, viz. " demonstrative pro- 
nouns," " indefinite pronouns," &c, having person, number, gender, and case. 

Questions. 

What words are called INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS ?— What are adjective 
pronouns 1 — How many kinds of adjective pronouns are there ? — What are they called ? 
— Name the possessive--distributive— demonstrative — indefinite — interrogative.— What 
are these words called when they are not prefixed to nouns 1 



24 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON IX. 

OF ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE AND ACTIVE-INTRAN- 
SITIVE VERBS. An Active-transitive Verb expresses an action 
which affects an object. 

An Active-intransitive Verb expresses an action confined to 
the actor. 

* The objective case denotes the object of a verb, (a participle, or a prepo- 
sition). 

Government is the influence which one word has over another in directing 
its case, &c. • 

Rule 9. Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made %n the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish the active-transitive, and the active-intransitive verbs, parse the nouns in the ob- 
jective case, and apply Rule 9. 

The base tyrant slew his friend treacherously. 
A generous man bestows his favors seasonably. 
That benevolent lady spends her time properly. 
This wealthy farmer cultivates his land thoroughly. 
Every valiant soldier performs his duty promptly. 
A profligate prince burdens the poor needlessly. 
An indulgent master governs his servants easily. 
Our generous commander pardoned him instantly. 
My noble companion relieved them effectually. 
Each worthy member performs his part cheerfully. 



The young giiPreads* ( M 


) 


correctly. 


A correct scholar speaks ( " 


) 


slowly. 


That aged veteran hears ( " 


) 


distinctly. 


A careless penman writes ( u 


) 


badly. 


The new vessel sails ( 


) 


rapidly. 


Those little birds fly ( 


) 


swiftly. 


A wide stream flows ( 


) 


smoothly. 


The mail coach arrives ( 


) 


daily. 


Questions 


• 





What does a TRANSITIVE VERB express ?— What does an INTRANSITIVE 
VERB express ?— What does the objective case denote ? — What is meant by gov- 
ernment ?— What rule do you give on parsing a noun or pronoun, governed by a 
transitive verb ? 

* All active verbs are transitive when there is any person or thing, named 
or clearly implied, upon which the actions that they express terminate. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 25 

LESSON X. 

Rule 10. Participles have the same government as the verbs 
from which they are derived. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to parse the words governed by the participles, and to apply Rule 10. 

The farmer caught the boy stealing his apples. We saw the 
stranger writing a letter. The officers arrested the man carrying 
off goods. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a word that is 
generally used to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sen- 
tences, to make but one : it sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions are of two kinds — Copulative and Disjunctive. 
Copulative — and, if, both, that, then, since, for, because, therefore. 
Disjunctive — but, or, nor, as, than, lest^ though, unless, notwithstanding, &c. 

Remark. The conjunctions and, or, nor, and as, are used for connecting 
words, as well as sentences. 

The other conjunctions are used for connecting sentences, or members of 
compound sentences. 

Remark. A simple sentence contains but one verb, and a noun or a pronoun, 
with which that verb agrees as its nominative; as, "The heavenly bodies re- 
volve steadily." 

A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences ; as, " Time 
flies swiftly, and death approaches us." 

Rule 11. Nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions must 
be in the same case. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to parse the conjunctions, point out their uses in connecting words and sentences, and apply 
RuleU. 

He and she saw the transaction. My friend knows him and 
her. He or she wrote this letter. The officer arrested him or 
his neighbor. Two and three make five. Charcoal, ( l< ) sulphur, 
and nitre, make gunpowder. God created the heavens and the 
earth. He created the sun, ( " ) the moon, and the stars; he 
created beasts, ( " ) birds, ( " ) fish, and insects. Writing care- 
lessly, men make many mistakes. Who came hither yesterday ? 
He and she instruct him and her. I saw the carpenter building 
a house. 

Questions. 

What is a CONJUNCTION ? — How many kinds of conjunctions arc there ?— 
What are they called? — Repeat the copulative. — Repeat the disjunctive. — Name 
the conjunctions that are used for connecting single words. — What constitutes a simple 
sentence ? — What constitutes a compound sentence 1 — What rule do you give on parsing 
a noun or a pronoun, governed by a participle ? 

3 



26 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON XL 

OF PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions are words used to connect 
other words, and to show the relations which exist between the facts 
and the objects which they represent. 

A List of the principal Prepositions. — Move, against, about, after, amidst, 
across, among, athwart, at ; behind, below, before, beside, beneath, between, be- 
twixt, beyond, by; concerning; down, during; except ; for, from ; in, into; 
near ; of, on or upon, over; round or around; since; through, throughout, till y 
touching, toward ; under, underneath, up ; roithin, icitJiout* 

Rule 12. Prepositions govern the objective case, 
Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to parse the prepositions, the nouns, and the pronouns, and apply Rule 12. 

They confided in him. He spoke unto them in parables. They 
called upon her in person. The mast fell athwart the ship. He 
walked with me by moonlight. My friends reside beyond the moun- 
tain. The fleet sailed down the river. He stands above me. The 
man lives over the store. The general marched on that day against 
the enemy. The stranger passed up the hill, near the fort, and he 
saw a vast plain below him. He walked befo?*e me for the space of 
an hour. His friends followed after him during the day, and on the 
next morning they found him behind a cabin in the forest* He 
went quickly up stairs, but he came as quickly down. 



OF INTERJECTIONS. An Interjection is a word which 
simply expresses some sudden emotion of the mind. It has no con- 
nection with the sentence with which it is used, nor any properties 
belonging to it. The principal interjections are, Ah ! O ! Alas t 
Fie! Poh! &c. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

O ! for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! We found the unfortu- 
nate gentleman playing with his little children. Walking swiftly 
forward over the valleys, he saw the hills gradually rising before 
him. You and I outran him and them. The lady (who came 
hither yesterday) went thither soon after. Some of them paid too 
dearly for the whistle. The gentleman (who called this morning) 
found us studying our lesson. Who lives here? Which horse trots 
to-day 1 Which lad recites first ? 

Questions. 

What is a PREPOSITION ?— What is an INTERJECTION ?— Name the princi- 
pal interjections. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 



27 



LESSON XII. 

OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. The Possessive Case ex- 
presses the relation of property, ownership, or possession. 

* The possessive case of nouns in the singular number, is generally formed 
by adding an apostrophe, followed by an s, thus, (>,) to the nominative ; and 
in the \plural number, ichen the noun ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



Singular. 


Nom. 


Man, 


Poss. 


♦Man's, 


Obj. 


Man ; 


Nom. 


Woman, 


Poss. 


Woman's, 


Obj. 


Woman ; 


Nom. 


Eagle, 


Poss. 


Eagle's, 


Obj. 


Eagle ; 


Nom. 


Deer, 


Poss. 


Deer's, 


Obj. 


Deer ; 



Plural 

Nom. Men, 



Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



Men's, 
Men. 

Women, 

Women's, 

Women. 

Eagles, 

Eagles',t 

Eagles. 

Deer, 

Deer's, 

Deer. 



Rule 13. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed 
by the name of the thing possessed, 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
distinguish the nouns, and pronouns, in the possessive case, tell by what words they are governed, 
and apply Rule 13. 

The king's resignation filled the world with astonishment. The 
officer's conduct destroyed all hopes of success. He doubts the 
gentleman's integrity. A friend bears a friend's infirmities. The 
deepest sorrow preyed upon that amiable lady's mind. She rang 
for her child, and in its infantine caresses she forgot her misery. 
His opinion coincides with mine. {"His performance deserves 
no commendation, but hers " pleases me. 



Questions. 

What does the POSSESSIVE CASE express? — How is the possessive case form- 
ed ? — How is a noun in the possessive case governed ? — Decline the nouns man, woman, 
eagle, and deer. 

X Some grammarians contend that, inasmuch as personal pronouns of the 
possessive form, sustain a tioqfold relation, — denoting the possessor of some- 
thing, and, at the same time, representing the thing possessed, — an additional 
noun, in this and similar cases, is not understood. When the noun is express- 
ed, an adjective pronoun is used instead of a personal pronoun — w?/, instead of 
mine; hcr f instead of hers; their, instead of theirs. 



28 



EXERCISES IN 



Examples to be Parsed, 

Containing Relative Pronouns in the three cases ; viz. the nominative, the possessive, and the 

objective. 

Remark. When a nominative comes between the relative pronoun and the 
verb, the relative must be in the possessive case, and governed by the following 
noun, or in the objective, and governed by the following verb, or by some par- 
ticiple, or preposition, in the same clause. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

869 7 3 2145 

Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. 

I lost a book yesterday, which my friend found to-day. 

The farm which you bought, I cultivated many years. 

The gentleman whose house you built, lives very genteelly. 

The person whose name you mention, left town yesterday. 

The boys and girls (who study their lessons) improve very fast. 

Whom you saw, him I respect. Which book has your brother ? 

He (who loves instruction) loves knowledge. What news have you ? 

The lady whose daughter you teach, comes hither daily. 

The lawyer of whom you spoke, visits us frequently. 

The gentleman to whom you owe your life, arrived yesterday. 



LESSON XIII. 



OF NOUNS, &c. Nouns are divided into two sorts, viz. Proper 
and Common. 

A Proper noun (or name) is the name applied to a particular person, place, 
&c. , as, Franklin, Charles, Ann, Roscoe, Portland, Maine, Monticello, Boston, 
Kennebeck, Penobscot. 

A Common noun (or name) is a general name given to a kind of objects; as, 
animal, man, tree, &c. 

Nouns may also be divided into the following classes : — Nouns of Multitude 
(or Collective nouns); as, the people, the public, the army; — Abstract nouns, or 
the names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knoxoledge, good- 
ness ; — Participial nouns; as, the beginning, the ending. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
distinguish the different sorts and classes of nouns, viz. the common, the proper, the collective, the 
abstract, and the participial. 

Doctor Follen's eulogy displayed great beauty and simplicity. 
It gave a brief sketch of Spurzheim's juvenile years, ( " ) his 
birth, ( " ) his education, and ( " ) his connection with Doct. 
Gall, from whom he received his first ideas of the science of phre- 
nology. Bonaparte lost the victory at Waterloo. Washington 
possessed a sound understanding, and ( " " ) great moral courage. 
He made a bad beginning, but ( <' li ) a good ending. The legis- 

Questions. 

How are NOUNS divided ? — How are proper nouns applied ? — What is a common 
noun ? — What further division may be made in nouns ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 29 

lature adjourned at twelve of the clock. The people rejoice in 
their prosperity. The army marches hither. Knowledge com- 
mands respect. Native goodness of heart secures peace to its pos- 
sessors. 

Remark. — When participles are used to describe nouns, as in the phrases " a 
rippling stream," "flying clouds," they are called participial adjectives. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

The opening world appeared in splendor. Nature yields her 
blushing beauties. The father's setting ray dimmed with shower- 
ing tears the sparkling eyes of his loving daughter. My drooping 
friend deplores his lonely lot. The lowing herd wind slowly over 
the lea. He envies not the bustling sons of earth. 

Remark. Intransitive verbs are frequently used as transitive verbs. Some 
govern a kindred noun or its pronoun, and no other ; as, " The Christian 
lives a holy life" 

Examples to be Parsed. 

The profligate runs a dreadful career. Many idle persons sleep 
themselves into a kind of* unnatural stupidity. The sycophant 
bowed and smiled himself into favor at court. She smiles her cares 
away. The horse ran himself to death. I die the death of the 
righteous. The Lord rained fire and brimstone upon Sodom and 
Gomorrah. He sleeps the sleep of death. 

Remark. Nouns of time, measure, and distance, are generally governed by 
prepositions understood. The prepositions to, of, and for, are often under- 
stood, especially, before pronouns. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

We rode ( " ) many miles ( '• ) that day. He resided here ( " ) 
many years. The wakeful nightingale sung her amorous descant 
( " ) all the night. He lay ( " ) an hour in great agony. She 
gave ( " ) me a book. He went ( " ) a hunting (excursion.) They 
made ( " ) him a present. They asked ( " ) him a question. She 
taught ( " ) me grammar. 



LESSON XIV. 
Examples to be Parsed, 

(Containing all the parts of speech,) in which only the simple forms of the active verb, 
transitive and intransitive, are used. 

Religious intolerance drove our fathers from their native coun- 
try. They sought an asylum in the trackless wilds of America. 
Here, in voluntary exile, they lived free. Here, they worshipped 

Questions. 

When PARTICIPLES are used to describe nouns, what are they called ? — Are in- 
transitive verbs ever used as transitive verbs 1— When are they so used?— Give an ex- 
ample.— How are nouns of time, measure, and distance, generally governed ? — What 
prepositions are frequently understood before pronouns ? 



30 exercises m 

their God according to the dictates of their own consciences. To 
them Liberty appeared more lovely in her wild mountains, than 
Tyranny ( " ) in his gaudy palaces. From such men we origina- 
ted. They instilled into the minds of their children a love of that 
liberty, ( " ? " " " " " " " ) a hatred of that tyranny. They 
cherished independence of mind in their offspring, and ( " ) en- 
twined it so firmly with their existence, that it " grew with their 
growth, and ( " ) strengthened with their strength." 

Two centuries rolled on : the wilderness blossomed like ( " ) the 
rose; and our free and happy colonists soon increased to the num- 
ber of three millions. About that time Great Britain commenced 
a system of oppressive taxation. This measure aroused their indig- 
nation. They considered taxation and representation as insepara- 
ble ( " ). In parliament they had no voice; and, therefore, they 
resolved on freedom or death. Ah ! then came the " tug of war!" 
But the wisdom, ( " " ) valor, and ( " ) example of the illustri- 
ous Washington, inspired a band of hardy heroes, who (rising in 
defence of their wives, ( " ) their children, and ( " ) their homes) 
led us from bondage to freedom, and secured to the nation aglorious 
independence. 

We now enjoy the fruits of the labors, ( " " " ) toils, and ( " ") 
cruelties, which our fathers suffered. Cities, ( " ) towns, and vil- 
lages, spring up in the forest. The wilderness becomes a garden. 
Peace and Plenty, hand in hand,* wander through our happy val- 
leys, and ( " ) sport upon our mountains. The wealth of distant 
nations pours into our lap, and our enterprise explores every section 
of the globe. 



THE TWO HARVESTS. 

But yesterday these few and heavy sheaves 
Waved in the golden harvest ; — from the plain 
The delicate blade shot upward, and the grain 

Put forth the unripe ear and tender leaves. 
Then the glad upland smiled upon the view, 

And to the air the broad green leaves unrolled, 

An emerald glimmered in each silken fold, 
And on each palm a pearl of morning dew. 

And thus sprung up and ripened in brief space 
All that smiled beauteous in the summer-tide, — 
All that beneath the reaper's sickle died. 

And thus springs up and dies the human race ! 
Thus grows the harvest of our longer year ; 
And, O ! how many fall before the yellow ear ! 

H. W. Longfellow. 

-■ ■ ---.- 

* Two or more words used collectively, in the sense of an ajlverb, are called an adverbial 
phrase ; as, " hand in "hand"—" a great deal"—" a little while ago." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 



31 



OF THE MODES AND TENSES. 

Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in 
which the being, action, or passion is represented. There are five 
Modes, viz. the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, the Infini- 
tive, and the Imperative. 

The Indicative Mode simply indicates or declares an action or event, or asks 
a question. 

Of Tense. Tense, in grammar, is the means used to divide time, and 
express the state of events. The Indicative Mode has six Tenses, viz. the 
Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, and the 
Second. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event as passing at the time in 
which it is mentioned ; as, " I walk to-day;" " He runs now" 

The Imperfect Tense represents an action either as past or finished, or as re- 
maining unfinished at a certain time past ; as, " I walked yesterday;" " He was 



running, 



&c, 



The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but also conveys an allu- 
sion to the present time ; as, " I have walked ; " " He has been running." 

The Pluperfect Tense represents an action or event not only as past, but also 
as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence ; as, " 1 had 
walked before I saw you." 

The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, either with or 
without respect to the precise time ; as, " I shall walk." 

The Second Future Tense intimates that the action will be fully accom- 
plished at or before the time of another future action or event; as, "I shall 
have walked ten miles in one hour more." 

Of Conjugation. Conjugation, in grammar, is the varying of verbs by 
uniting them with the personal pronouns, and with each other, to show their 
different modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

Verbs are called Regular, if their imperfect tenses and perfect participles are 
formed by adding to their present tenses ed, or d only, if the verbs end in e. 
All other verbs are Irregular. 





Examples of Regular Verbs. 




Present Tense. 
I walk, 
I learn, 


Imperfect Tense. 

I walked, 
I learned, 

Examples of Irregular Verbs. 


Perfect Participle. 
walked, 
learned. 


Present Tense. 

I go, 
I break, 

I find, 


Imperfect Tense. 
I went, 
I broke, 
I found, 


Perfect Participle 
gone, 
broken, 
found. 



Questions. 

What is MODE 1 — How manv modes are there ? — How does the indicative mode 
represent an action or event ? — What is the meaning of tense ? — How many tenses are 
there ? — Give a definition of each. — What is meant by conjugation ? — What verbs are 
called regular ?— What verbs are called irregular ! 



32 



EXERCISES IN 



The following is a list of the irregular verbs, as they are now .generally 
used. Those marked with the letter r admit also of the regular form. 



resent. 


Imper. 


Per/. Part. 


Present. 


Imper. 


Per/. Part 


abide, 


I abode, 


abode. 


I hide, 


I hid, 


hidden. 


am, 


I was, 


been. 


I hit, 


I hit, 


hit. 


bear, 


I bore, 


borne. 


I hold, 


I held, 


held. 


beat, 


I beat, 


beaten. 


I hurt, 


I hurt, 


hurt. 


begin, 


I began, 


begun. 


I kneel, 


I knelt, r. 


knelt, r. 


bend, 


I bent, r. 


bent, r. 


I knit, 


I knit, r. 


knit, r. 


beseech, 


1 besought, 


besought. 


I know, 


I knew, 


known. 


bid, 


1 bade, 


bidden. 


I lade, 


I laded, 


laden. 


bind, 


I bound, 


bound. 


I lay, 


I laid, 


laid. 


bite, 


I bit, 


bitten. 


I lead, 


lied, 


led. 


bleed, 


I bled, 


bled. 


I leave, 


I left, 


left. 


blow, 


I blew, 


blown. 


I lend, 


I lent, 


lent. 


break, 


I broke, 


broken. 


I let, 


I let, 


let. 


breed, 


I bred, 


bred. 


I lie, 


I lay, 


lain. 


bring, 


I brought, 


brought. 


I lose, 


I lost, 


lost. 


build, 


I built, r. 


built, r. 


I make, 


I made, 


made. 


burst, 


I burst, 


burst. 


I mean, 


I meant, 


meant. 


W, 


I bought, 


bought. 


I meet, 


I met, 


met. 


cast, 


I cast, 


cast. 


I pay, 


I paid, 


paid. 


catch, 


I caught, r. 


caught, r. 


I put, 


I put, 


put. 


chide, 


I chid, 


chidden. 


I quit, 


I quit, 


quit, r. 


choose, 


I chose, 


chosen. 


I read, 


I read, 


read. 


cling, 


I clung, 


clung. 


I reave, 


I reft, 


reft. 


come, 


I came, 


come. 


I rend, 


I rent, 


rent. 


cost, 


I cost, 


cost. 


I rid, 


I rid, 


rid. 


creep, 


I crept, r. 


crept. 


I ride, 


I rode, 


ridden. 


cut, 


I cut, 


cut. 


I ring, 


I rang,. 


rung 


deal, 


I dealt, 


dealt. 


I rise, 


I rose, 


risen. 


dig, 


I dug, r. 


dug. 


I run, 


I ran, 


run. 


do, 


I did, 


done. 


I say, 


I said, 


said. 


draw, 


I drew, 


drawn. 


I see, 


I saw, 


seen. 


dream, 


I dreamt, r. 


dreamt, r. 


I seek, 


I sought, 
I sold, 


sought. 


drive, 


I drove, 


driven. 


I sell, 


sold. 


drink, 


I drank,. 


drunk. 


I send, 


I sent, 


sent 


dwell, 


I dwelt, r. 


dwelt, t. 


I set, 


I set, 


set. 


eat, 


I ate, 


eaten. 


I shake, 


I shook, 


shaken. 


fall, 


I fell, 


fallen. 


I shed, 


I shed, 


shed. 


feed, 


I fed, 


fed. 


I shine, 


I shone, r. 


shone, r. 


feel, 


I felt, 


felt. - 


I shoe, 


I shod, 


shod. 


fight, 


I fought, 


fought. 


I show, 


I showed, 


shown. 


find, 


I found, 


found. 


I shoot, 


I shot, 


shot. 


flee, 


I fled, 


fled. 


I shut, 


I shut, 


shut. 


fling, 


I flung, 


flung. 


I shred, 


I shred, 


shred. 


%, 


I flew, 


flown. 


I shrink, 


I shrank, 


shrunk. 


forsake, 


I forsook, 


forsaken. 


I sing, 


I sang, 


sung. 


freeze, 


I froze, 


frozen. 


I sink, 


I sunk, 


sunk. 


&h 


I got, 


got. 


I sit, 


I sat, 


sat. 


g^d, 


I gilt, r. 


gilt, r. 


I slay, 


I slew, 


slain. 


g^d, 


I girt, r. 


girt, r. 


I sleep, 


I slept, 


slept. 


give, 


I gave, 


given. 


I slide, 


I slid, 


slidden. 


go, 


I went, 


gone. 


I sling, 


I slung, 


slung. 


grind, 


I ground, 


ground. 


I slink, 


I slunk, 


slunk. 


grow^ 


I grew, 
1 hung, r. 


grown. 


I slit, 


I slit, r. 


slit, r. 


hang, 


hunff, r. 


I smite, 


I smote, 


smitten. 


have, 


I had, 


had 


I speak, 


I spoke, 


spoken. 


hear, 


I heard, 


heard. 


I speed, 


I sped, 


sped. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



33 



Present. 
I spend, 
I spin, 
I spit, 
I split, 
I^spread, 
Ispring, 
I stand, 
I steal, 
I stick, 
I sting, 
I stride, 
I strike, 
I string, 
I strive, 
I swear, 
I sweep, 
I swim, 
I swing, 



Imper. 

I spent, 
I spun, 
I spit, 
I split, 
I spread, 
I sprang, 
I stood, 
I stole, 
I stuck, 
I stung, 
I strode, 
I struck, 
I strung, r. 
I strove, r. 
I swore, 
I swept, 
I swam, 
I swung, 



Per/. Part. 

spent. 

spun. 

spit. 

split. 

spread. 

sprung. 

stood. 

stolen. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stridden. 

struck. 

strung, r. 

striven, r. 

sworn. 

swept. 

swum. 

swung. 



Present. 
I take, 
I teach, 
I tear, 
I tell, 
I think, 
I throw, 
I thrust, 
I tread, 
I wear, 
I weave, 
I weep, 
I win, 
I wind, 
I work, 
I wring, 
I write, 



Imper. 
I took, 
I taught, 
I tore, 
I told, 
I thought, 
I threw, 
I thrust, 
I trod, 
I wore, 
I wove, 
I wept, r. 
I won, 
I wound, r. 
I wrought, r. 
I wrung, 
I wrote, 



Per/. Part. 

taken. 

taught. 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

trodden. 

worn. 

woven. 

wept, r. 

won. 

wound. 

wrought, r. 

wrung. 

written. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A defective verb is a verb which wants some of the principal parts. All the 
auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are defective. 



The following is a list of the defective verbs. 

Present. Imperfect. 
May, might, 

Can, could, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

Shall, should, 

Will, would, 

Quoth, quoth, 



Perfect Participles. 
are wanting. 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 
Have varies both in the second person and the third. Must has no variation. 
Quoth has no variation. The other defective verbs vary in the second person 
singular only ; thus, 



Present, 

Imperfect. 

Pres. 

Imper. 

Pres. 

Imper. 

Pres. 

Imper. 

Pres. 

Imper 



I 

May, 

Might, 

Can, 

Could, 

Shall, 

Should, 

Will, 

Would, 

Have, 

Had, 



Pres. & Imp. Ought, 



Singular. 
Thou 
May-st, 
Might-s*, 
Can-sJ, 
Could-s*, 
Shal-*, 
Should-**, 
Wil-*, 
Would-s*, 
Has-*, 
Had -st, 
Ought-es*, 



Plural. 





We, Ye or 


He 


You, They 


May, 


May. 


Might, 


Might. 


Can, 


Can. 


Could, 


Could. 


Shall, 


Shall. 


Should, 


Should. 


Will, 


Will. 


Would, 


Would. 


Has, 


Have. 


Had, 


Had. 


Ought, 


Ought. 



34 EXERCISES IN 

Conjugation of the Verb WRITE, in the Indicative Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I write, We write, 

Thou write-sf * Ye or you write, 

He writer ;t They write. • 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I wrote, We wrote, 

Thou wrote-s£, % Ye or you wrote, 

He wrote \ They wrote. 

Perfect Participle — written. 

Questions. 

What is the personal termination of a verb of the second person, present tense ? * 
■ — What of the third person ? t — What is the personal termination of a verb of the 
second person, imperfect tense ? \ — How many variations has a verb, on account of 
person, in the present tense ?— How many in the imperfect tense 1 — Give the con- 
jugation of the verb write, in the indicative mode, -present and imperfect tenses, and 
the perfect participle^ — Conjugate in the same manner, and give the perfect participles 
of the verbs abide, bear, beat, begin, bend, beseech, bid, &c. &c. &c, and mark their 
personal terminations. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

The perfect tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary have (variations hast 
and has) to the perfect participle, WRITTEN. [See 3d square of the diagram 
on the opposite page.] 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I have written, We have written, 

Thou hast written,. Ye or you have written, 

He has or hath written ; They have written. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

The pluperfect tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary had (variation 
hadst) to the perfect participle, WRITTEN. [See 4th square of the diagram.] 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I had written, We had written, 

Thou had-.stf written, Ye or you had written, 

He had written ; They had written. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

The first future tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary shall or will 
(variations shalt and icilt) to the present tense of the verb, WRITE. [See 
5th square of the diagram.'] 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I shall or will write, We shall or will write. 

Thou shalt or wilt write, Ye or you shall or will write, 

He shall or will write ; They shall or will write. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

The second future tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries shall have or 
will have, &c. to the perfect participle, WRITTEN. [See 6th square of the 
diagram.] 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I shall have written, We shall have written, 

Thou wilt have written, Ye or you will have written, 

He will have written ; They will have written. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



35 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



The Indicative Mode simply indicates or declares an action or 
event, or asks a question. 




See explanation, page 10. 



Examples to be Parsed, 



In which it is required of the pupil, in parsing the verbs, to tell whether they are regular or 
irregular — whether they are transitive or intransitive — give the mode and tense, person and 
number of each ; and its agreement with its nominative, 4"c. 

I write. ' Thou writest. He writes. We write. Ye write. They 
write. The girl writes. Your son writes elegantly. His pupils write 
daily. I wrote. Thou wrotest. He wrote. We wrote. You wrote. 
They wrote. The boy wrote yesterday. The clerk wrote the letter 
I have written a letter. Thou hast written before. He has written 
repeatedly. We have written our copies. You have written enough. 
I had written before you saw him. Thou hadst written in the new 
book. He had written many letters. We had written our exercises. 
Ye had written ten pages. I shall write to-morrow. Thou wilt write 
again. He will write to you. We shall write to them. Ye will write 
to your friends. They will write immediately. I shall have written 
ten letters by to-morrow noon. Thou wilt have fiuished thy work. 
He will have completed his engagement. Whose book is this ? 

Questions. 

How does the INDICATIVE MODE express an action or event ? — How many 
tenses has it 1 — What are they called ? — What are the signs of the perfect tense ? — 
How is it formed ? — What are the signs of the pluperfect ? — How is it formed 1 — What 
are the signs of the first future ? — How is it formed ? — What are the signs of the second 
future ? — How is it formed ? — How many of these tenses express past time ? — How 
many ; future ?— Conjugate the verb write. 






36 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS 



Have varies both in the second person and the third. 
Quoth has no variation. The other defective verbs vary 
singular only ; thus, 



Present, 

Imperfect, 

Pres. 

Imper, 

Pres. 

Jmper. 

Pres. 

Imper. 

Pres. 

Imper. 

Pres. & Imp. 



Singular. 




I 


Thou 


He 


May, 


May-s£, 


May, 


Might, 


Mights, 


Might, 


Can, 


Can-s£, 


Can, 


Could, 


Could-s£, 


Could, 


Shall, 


Shal-*, 


Shall, 


Should, 


Should-s£, 


Should, 


Will, 


WiK 


Will, 


Would, 


Would-s£, 


Would, 


Have, 


Has-£, 


Has, 


Had, 


Had-s£, 


Had, 


Ought, 


Ought-est, 


Ought, 



Must has no variation, 
in the second person 



Plural. 
We, Ye or 
You, They 

May. 

Might. 

Can. 

Could. 

Shall. 

Should. 

Will. 

Would. 

Have. 

Had. 

Ought. 



Conjugation of the Verb STUDY, in the Subjunctive Mode. 

A verb in the subjunctive mode is preceded by a conjunction, expressing a 
doubt, motive, wish, or supposition (indicated by the list of conjunctions given 
on the left of the diagram); and, when futurity is denoted, the termination of 
the verb is not varied in the second person, nor in the third, singular number, as 
it is in the indicative. 

When the verb has no reference to future time, but simply expresses a doubt, 
motive, wish, &c, though in the subjunctive mode, it is varied on account of 
the person of its nominative as it is in the indicative, and is conjugated thus : — 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE; INDICATIVE FORM. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular Number, 
If I study, 
If thou studied. 
If he studies ; 



Plural Number. 
If we study, 
If ye or you study, 
If they study, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, ELLIPTICAL FORM.* 



Singular Number. 
If I study, 
If thou study, 
If he study ; 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Plural Number. 
If we study, 
If ye or you study, 
If they study. 



The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mode are conjugated like the cor- 
respondent tenses of the indicative mode, except that a conjunction express- 
ing a doubt, motive, &c, is used before the verb, and that unll and wilt are 
not used in forming the second future tense. {See diagram on'the opposite 
page.] 

* Before this form of the subjunctive mode, some auxiliary is understood ; as in the 
following examples:— " If I study," i.e. " If I (should) study"— " If thou study," i. e. 
" If thou (shouldst) study." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



37 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



The Subjunctive Mode represents an action or event under a 
condition, motive, wish, or supposition. 




See explanation, p. 10. 



Examples to be Parsed, 



In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding- exercises) tit 
distinguish the verbs in the subjunctive mode, conjugate them, and explain the differences beticecn 
the subjunctive mode and the indicative. 

He will study if I require it. Thou wilt study if I give ( " ) thee a 
book. We shall go if the stage arrive in season. We shall leave town 
to-morrow, unless it storm. I shall go without him, unless he come soon. 
On condition that he come, I will consent to his proposal. He will main- 
tain his argument, though he lose his reputation. He will gain admission 
if he pass the guard. He will punish his enemies, though they despise 
his power. 

If he desire it, I will perform the operation. Though he slay me, yet 
will I trust in him. Though he excels her in knowledge, yet she exceeds 
him in virtue. I will support him if he conduct honorably. If he labor 
faithfully, he will receive his rew r ard. 



Questions. 

How does the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE represent an action or event ?— How many 
tenses has it ? — What are they called 1 — Does the present tense of the subjunctive mode 
differ from the present tense' of the indicative ? — In what particular does it differ ?«— 
Does the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mode differ from that of the indicative ?— 
Give the signs of the several tenses of the subjunctive mode. — How is each tense formed ? 
— What conjunctions are used in forming the subjunctive mode ? — Conjugate the verb 
study j through all the tenses of the subjunctive mode. 
4 



38 



EXERCISES IN 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The following auxiliary verbs are used in forming the several tenses of 
the potential mode, viz. may, can, might, could, would, should, and their 
variations.* 

Conjugation of the Verb STRIKE, in the Potential Mode. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



The present tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the auxiliary 
may or can * (variations mayst or canst) to the present tense of the indicative, 
STRIKE. [See the 1st square of the diagram on the opposite page.] 



Singular Number. 
I may or can strike, 
Thou mayst or canst strike, 
He may or can strike ; 



Plural Number. 
We may or can strike, 
Ye or you may or can strike,. 
They may or can strike. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



The imperfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the auxili- 
ary might, could, would, or should (variations mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 
shouldst) to the present tense of the indicative, STRIKE. [See the 2d square 
of the diagram.'} 



Singular Number. 
I might, could, would, &c. strike, 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, &c. 

strike, 
He mighty could, would, «&c. strike ; 



Plural Number. 

We might, could, would, &c. strike, 
Ye or you might, could, would, &c. 

strike, 
They might, could, would, &c. strike. 



PERFECT TEN5E. 



The perfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries 
may have or can haxe (variation mayst have, cr canst have) to the perfect 
participle, STRUCK. [See the 3d square of the diagram.} 



Singular Number. 
I may or can have struck, 
Thou mayst or canst have struck, 
He may or can have struck ; 



Plural Number. 
We may or can have struck, 
Ye or you may or can have struck, 
They may or can have struck. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 



The pluperfect tense of the potential mode is formed by prefixing the auxili- 
aries might have, could have, would have, or should have (variations mightst, 
couldst, &c.) to the perfect participle, STRUCK. [See the 4th square of 
the diagram.} 



Singular Number. 

I might, could, would, &c. have 

struck, 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, &c. 

have struck, 
He might, could, would, &c. have 

struck ; 



Plural Number. 
We might, could, would, &c. have 

struck, 
Ye or you might, could, would, &c. 

have struck, 
They might, could, would, &c. have 

struck. 



* Must also is used in forming the present tense of the potential mode. Shall and 
will, when they denote inclination, resolution, or prornise, may, as well as their variations, 
should and would, be considered as belonging to the potential mode. But as they gen- 
erally signify futurity, they are used as helping verbs in forming the future tenses, both of 
the indicative mode and the subjunctive. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 



39 



POTENTIAL, MODE. 



The Potential Mode implies possibility, liberty, power, will, or 
obligation. It is also used in asking questions. It has four tenses. 




See explanation, p. 19. 



Examples to be Parsed, 



tn which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
distinguish, parse, and conjugate, the several verbs in the potential mode. 

I may strike thee. Thou canst strike the man. He may strike the 
soldier. We can strike them again. You may strike him. They may 
strike the boys. I might strike them together. Thou couldst strike the 
man's dog. He would strike him. We would strike thee. Ye might 
strike them. They might strike us. I may have struck the wrong per- 
son. Thou mayst have struck. He may have struck his antagonist. 
I might have struck my enemy. Thou mightst have struck the master. 
He might have struck the soldier. My friend writes letters very 
often. He wrote many letters to his friends. I will attend, if he re- 
quire it. Thou wilt hurt thyself, if thou injure him. He acts uprightly, 
unless he deceives me. We shall arrive by noon, unless it rain. I will 
trust in him, though he slay me. 

Questions. 

What does the POTENTIAL MODE imply ?— How many tenses has it ?— What 

are they called ? — What are the signs of the present tense ? — How is the present tense 
formed"? — What are the signs of the imperfect tense ? — How is it formed ? — What are 
the signs of the perfect tense 1 — How is it formed ? — What are the signs of the 
pluperfect tense ?— How is it formed ?•— Conjugate the verb strike, through all the tenses 
of tue potential mocje. 



40 EXERCISES IN 

THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

A verb in any mode except the infinitive has a nominative, with which 
it agrees in person and number. [See Rule 3d.] On account of its being thus 
limited as to person and number, it is called & finite verb. A verb in the infini- 
tive mode, however, has no nominative ; and it is, therefore, unlimited as to per- 
son and number. It is for this reason that this mode is called the infinitive or 
unlimited mode. It has two tenses, viz. the Present and the Perfect. The 
present tense of the infinitive mode is formed by prefixing to (which is called 
the sign of the infinitive) to the present tense of the verb ; as, to go, to write. 
The perfect tense of the infinitive is formed by prefixing to have to the perfect 
participle ; as, to have gone, to have written, <&c. 

Conjugation of the Verb GO. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To go. To have gone. 

Remark 1. When a verb in the infinitive mode follows make, need, see, bid, 
dare, feel, hear, let, say, know, have, observe, behold, perceive, or their participles, 
the sign to is generally omitted ; as, " I make him study.' 1 

Exceptions. When the preceding verbs are made passive, they require the 
sign to before the following verb ; as, "He was seen to go ;" " He teas heard 
to speak.' * The sign to is sometimes employed after needs, know, have, &c, as 
in the following example : — " One needs no more than to observe how strongly 
we are touched by mere pictures." The use of to after need is frequent among 
the best writers, especially when there are any intervening words. Have, de- 
noting possession or obligation, is generally followed by to ; as, " I have to 
write daily j" "I had to do this." 

Remark 2. Verbs in the infinitive mode naturally follow, and coalesce with, 
other verbs, (in that, or in any of the other modes,) as well as .with nouns, pro- 
nouns } adjectives, or participles. 

Examples. 

1. With Verbs. "He has great inducements to try to learn;" "I desire to 

learn my duty ;" " Cease to do evil, and learn to do well." 

2. With Nouns. " They had leave to go;" " He had a desire to study divinity." 

3. With Pronouns. " 1 supposed him to be a man of learning ;" " They found 

her to be highly accomplished." 

4. With Adjectives. "They were eager to learn ;" " She was anxious to gain 

friends." 

5. With Participles. " Endeavoring to persuade us, he became warm in his 

argument;" " Attempting to escape, he fell." 

Exceptions. Though verbs in the infinitive mode generally depend upon 
verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or participles, yet they are sometimes joined 
to adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. 

Examples. 

" He is old enough to know better than to trust you ;" "I am about to go ;" 
" An object so high as to be invisible ;" "A question so obscure as to perplex 
the understanding." 



Mote. " A verb in the infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, noun, ad- 
jective, or participle." This rule (or one similar to it) has long been considered 
a necessary one. It appears in most of the modifications of the system of Mr. 
Murray.' It was adopted by the writer of this note, at the suggestion of highly 
respectable instructors who used his work in their schools. But the opinion of 
teachers, generally, having changed in regard to the utility and correctness of 
this rule, it is no longer deemed necessary to retain it as a rule. — For remarks 
in relation to the government of the infinitive mode x see page 13. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
THE INFINITIVE MODE, 



41 



The Infinitive Mode expresses an action or event, in a general 
and unlimited manner, without regard to person or number. It 
has but two tenses, viz. the present and the perfect. 




Imperfect. 
Went 



Per/. Par. 
Gone 




To Have 

Perf. Tense, 



See explanation, p. II. 

Rule 14. Verbs in the infinitive mode generally depend on 
verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or participles. 



Examples to be Parsed, 

In wJiich it is required of ike pupil [in addition to distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to dis- 
tinguish, conjugate, and parse, the several verbs in the infinitive mode, and to apply Rule 14. 

He promised to . go immediately. They intended to destroy their 
enemies. He ought to embrace the first opportunity. The boy ought to 
have studied grammar earlier. She expects to see her friends from the 
country. No person can expect to improve without application. We 
see many persons conduct themselves very foolishly. He will not let the 
people go. He made each man perform his duty. He saw the fleet enter 
the harbor. He began to figure to himself the miseries of confinement. 
She resolved to do good and to avoid evil, without regard to the opinions 
of men. I dare say he will arrive in season. 

Questions. 

How does the INFINITIVE MODE express an action or event ? — How many tenses 
has it ? — What are they called ? — What word is called the sign of the infinitive mode 1 — 
What are the signs of the perfect tense of the infinitive mode? — How is the present 
tense formed 1 — How is the perfect tense formed ? — Is the sign to always prefixed to a 
vert>in the infinitive mode ? — When is it omitted X 

4* 



42 



EXERCISES IX 



OF THE DIAGRAMS. 



The diagrams representing the modes already mentioned, viz. the indicative, 
the subjunctive, the potential, and the infinitive, are divided to indicate the 
number of tenses in each mode ; viz. that for the indicative mode, into six 
squares, to show that that mode has six tenses; that for the subjunctive, into 
the same number ; that for the potential, into four ; that for the infinitive, into 
two ; but the imperative having but one tense, the diagram representing it re- 
mains entire.. [See right hand page. J 



THE IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Conjugation of the Verb MARCH. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

March thou, March ye or you, 

or or 

Do thou march. Do ye or you march. 

By help of the diagrams and the preceding remarks, it is believed that any 
intelligent pupil will be enabled to conjugate, readily, and understanding^, the 
following verbs ; viz. write, in the indicative mode ; study, in the subjunctive ; 
strike, in the potential; go, in the infinitive; and march, in the imperative. 
After which, he will be able to conjugate any other verb in the same manner 
with fluency and correctness. 

Obs. 1. The nominative to a verb in the imperative mode is, generally, 
understood ; as, " Study thy lesson," i. e. " Study (thou) thy lesson." 

Obs. 2. Those tenses are called simple tenses which are formed without the 
aid of auxiliary verbs ; as, " I love ; I loved." Those tenses which cannot be 
formed without the aid of auxiliaries, are called compound tenses ; as, " I have 
loved ; I had loved ; I shall or will love ; I may love ; I may be loved ; I may- 
have been loved," <fec. These compounds are, however, to be considered as 
different forms of the same verb. 

Obs. 3. Tense and Time. There is, says a discriminating writer, a differ- 
ence between tense and time. Tense is the instrument employed in language 
for dividing time; but time is the thing divided. Tense, or the means employed 
in the division of time, is derived either from a certain form of the verb, as, 
"love, loved," or from a combination of two or more verbs, as, u shall have 
loved." • 

Questions* 

What TENSES are called simple tenses ? — What tenses are called compound tenses ? 
-—Is there any difference between tense and time ? — Explain the difference in. the mean- 
Bttg of the two terms.. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



43 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



The Imperative Mode is used for commanding, exhorting, en- 
treating, or permitting. It has but one tense, and one person, 
viz. the present tense, and the second person. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 

March thou 

or 

Do thou march. 



Plural. 
March ye 
or 
Do ye march 





See explanation, p. 11, 



Examples to be Parsed, 



In which it is required of Hie pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
distinguish, conjugate, and parse, the several verbs in the ijnperatice mode. 

Study ( " ) thy lesson. Study ( " ) your lessons. Go ( " ) to 
school in season. Depart ( u ) from me immediately. Behave ( " ) 
well, if thou lovest virtue. Imitate ( " ) thy superiors in wisdom. 
Love ( " ) thy neighbors as thou lovest thyselfl Waste ( " ) not 
thy time. Omit ( " ) no opportunity for improvement. Avoid ( " ) 
sin, if you desire to escape temptation. He can write elegantly, or I 
have mistaken his exercises. Let ( " ) no man pretend to superior 
attainments, unless he can fairly support his claims. He can excel 
me, if he chooses. The man might have seen his friend, if he had 
asked permission. Betray ( " ) not thy friends. Render ( " ) good 
things for evil ( " ). Live ( " ) properly, that you may die cheer- 
fully. 

Questions. 

For what is the IMPERATIVE MODE used ?— How many tenses has it ?— Is the 
nominative to a verb in this mode generally expressed ? — How many modes are there ? — 
How does each express an action or event? — How many tenses has each mode? — 
Conjugate the verb study, in the indicative mode, the subjunctive, the potential; the in- 
finitive, and the imperative j and tell how the tenses are formed in each mode. 



44 



EXERCISES IN 



OF NEUTER VERBS. A Neuter Verb expresses neither action 
nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 

Conjugation of the Neuter Verb BE {or AM.) 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



Singular. 
I am, 
Thou art, 
He, she, or it is 3 



Singular, 
I was, 
Thou wast, 
He was j 



Singular, 
I have been, 
Thou hast been, 
He has been 5 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 
We are, 
Ye or you are, 
They are. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural 
We were, 
Ye or you were, 
They were. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 
We have been, 
Ye or you have been, 
They have been. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I had Deen, We had been, 

Thou hadst been, Ye or you had been, 

He had been ; They had been. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 
I shall or will be, 
Thou shalt or wilt be, 
He shall or will be ; 



Plural 
We shall or will be, 
Ye or you shall or will be, 
They shall or will be* 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 
I shall have been, 
Thou wilt have been, 
He will have been 5 



Plural. 
We shall have been, 
Ye or you will have been, 
They will have been. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present Participle, Being 5 — Perfect Participle, Been 5 — Compound Perfect, Having 
been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Indicative Form. 



Elliptical Form. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
If I am, 
If thou art, 
If he is 5 



Plural. 
If we are, 
If ye are, 
If thev are. 



Singular. 
If I be, 
If thou be, 
If he be 5 



Plural. 
If we be, 
If ye be, 
If they be ; 



The neuter verb Be has two forms in the imperfect tense of this mode, as well as in 
the present. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 45 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

If I was, If we were, 

If thou wast, If ye were, 

If he was 5 If they were. 



Singular. Plural. 

If I were, If we were, 

If thou wert, If ye were, 

If he were 5 If they were. 



The remaining tenses of this mode are conjugated like the correspondent tenses of the 
indicative mode, excepting that will and icilt are not used in forming the second future 
tense. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I may or can be, We may or can be, 

Thou mayst or canst be, Ye or you may or can be, 

He may or can be 3 They may or can be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, &c. be, We might, could, would, &c. be, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, &c. be, Ye or you might, could, would, &c. be, 

He might, could ; would, &c. be 5 They might, could, would, &c. be. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. - Plural. 

I may or can have been, We may or can have been, 

Thou mayst or canst have been, Ye or you may or can have been, 

He may or can have been 5 They may or can have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, &c. have been, We might, could, would, &c. have been, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, &c. have Ye or you might, could, would, &c. have 

been, been, 

He might, could, would, &c. have been 3 They might, could, would, &c. have been. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, To be 5 Perfect Tense, To have been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Be thou, or do thou be 3 Be ye or you, or do ye or you be. 



OF PASSIVE VERBS. A Passive Verb, generally, expresses an 
action done to its own nominative. 

To form a passive verb, prefix be, am, art, is, are, ivas, were, toast (wert), 
or been, to the perfect participle of a transitive verb. 

The Passive Form of the Verb LOVE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I am loved, We are loved, 

Thou art loved, Ye or you are loved, 

He is loved 5 They are loved. 



46 



EXERCISES IN 



Singular, 
I was loved, 
Thou wast loved, 
He was loved 5 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 
We were loved, 
Ye or 3 T ou were loved, 
They were loved. 



PERFECT 

Singular. 
I have been loved, 
Thou hast been loved, 
He hath or has been loved 3 



TENSE. 

Plural. 
We have been loved, 
Ye or you have been loved, 
They have been loved. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
I had been loved, 
Thou hadst been loved, 
He had been loved 3 



Plural. 
We had been loved, 
Ye or 3 7 ou had been loved, 
They had been loved. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 
I shall or will be loved, 
Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 
He shall or will be loved 3 



Plural. 
We shall or will be loved, 
Ye or you shall or will be loved, 
They shall or will be loved. 



Singular. 
I shall have been loved, 
Thou wilt have been loved, 
He will have been loved 3 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Plural. 
We shall have been loved, 
Ye or you will have been loved, 
They will have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Indicative Form. 

PRESENT 

Singular. Plural. 

If I am loved, If we are loved, 

If thou art loved, If ye are loved, 

If he is loved 5 If they are loved. 

Passive Verbs have two forms in the imperfect tense of this mode, as well as in the 
present. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I was loved, If we were loved, 

If thou wast loved. If ye were loved, 



Elliptical Form 

tense. 

Singular. 
If I be loved, 
If thou be loved, 
If he be loved 5 



Plural. 

f we be loved, 

If ye be loved, 

If they be loved. 



If he was loved 5 If they were loved. 



Singular. 



If I were loved, 
If thou wert loved, 
If he were loved ; 



Plural. 
If we were loved, 
If ye were loved, 
If they were loved. 



The remaining tenses of this mode are similar to the correspondent tenses of the 
indicative mode, excepting that a conjunction is prefixed. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I may or can be loved, We may or can be loved, 

Thou mayst or canst be loved, Ye or you may or can be loved, 

He may or can be loved 3 They may or can be loved. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
I might > could, would, or should be loved, 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 

be loved, 
He might, could, would, or should be 
loved 3 



Plural. 
We might, could, would, or should be loved, 
Ye or you might, could, would, or should 

be loved, 
They might, could, would^ or should be 

loved. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 47 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I may or can have been loved, We may or can have been loved, 

Thou mayst or canst have been loved. Ye or you may or can have been loved, 

He may or can have been loved 5 They may or can have been loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should have been We might, could, would, or should have 

loved, been loved. 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst Ye or you might, could, would, or should 

have been loved, have been loved, 

He might, could, would, or should have They might, could, would, or should have 

been loved 5 been loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Love thou, or do thou love 5 Love ye or you, or do ye or you love, 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being loved. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 



Participles of the Verb WRITE. 

Present Participle. Writing. , Perfect Participle. Written. 

Compound Perfect. Having written. 



REMARKS ON CONJUGATION. 

Instead of the form of conjugation already given, which, by way of 
distinction, may be denominated the common, or simple form, we often 
prefix the neuter verb be, or am, as an auxiliary to the present participle ; 
thus, J am writing — Thou art ivriting — He is writing, &c. This may be 
called the participial form of conjugation r 

Questions. 

What is a NEUTER VERB ?— Conjugate the neuter verb be or am, through the 
several tenses of the indicative mode, the subjunctive, the potential, the infinitive, and 
the imperative j and give its participles. 

What does a PASSIVE VERB express ?— How is a passive verb formed ?— What 
does the nominative case to an active verb denote ? — What does the nominative case to 
a neuter verb denote ? — What does the nominative case to a passive verb denote ?— » 
Conjugate the verb love, in the passive form, through the different tenses of the several 
moaes. 



48 



EXERCISES IN 



When we wish to express ourselves with energy and positiveness, we 
often prefix the verb do, and its imperfect did, as auxiliaries, to the 
present tense of other verbs in the indicative mode ; thus, / do write — 
Thou dost write— He does write ; I did write — Thou didst write, &c. 
may with propriety be called the emphatic form. 



This 



EXAMPLES OF THE THREE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 



Simple Foj-m. 



I write, 
Thou writest, 
He writes ; 



Participial Form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singidar Number. 
I am writing, 
Thou art writing, 
He is writing ; 



Emphatic Form. 



I do write, 
Thou dost write, 
He does write : 



We write, 
Ye write, 
They write. 



Plural Number. 

We are writing, 
Ye are writing, 
They are writing. 



We do write. 
Ye do write, 
They do write. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



I wrote, 
Thou wrotest, 
He wrote ; 



Singular Number. 

I was writing, 
Thou wast writing, 
He was writing ; 



I did write, 
Thou didst write, 
He did write ; 



We wrote, 
Ye wrote, 
They wrote. 



Plural Number. 

We were writing, 
Ye were writing, 
They were writing. 



We did write, 
Ye did write, 
They did write. 



Rule 15. Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same 
mode and tense, and of the same form of conjugation. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil) (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises,) in 
parsing the verbs, to distinguish the several forms of conjugation, point out the uses if the con- 
junctions, and apply Rale 15. 

He did tell ( " " ) his fault, and entreat me to forgive him. If thou 
sincerely desire, and really seek Virtue, thou wilt find her. My friend is 
writing letters, and sending them abroad. He will succeed, and obtain 
his end. He rides or walks daily. They are pursuing their enemies, 
and destroying them with the sword. 



Questions* 

How many forms of conjugation are there ? — What are they called ? — How is each 
formed ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 



49 



AN ILLUSTRATION 

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS: 
ACTIVE, PASSIVE, AND NEUTER. 

The nominative to an Active verb denotes the doer of the action. 

The nominative to a Passive verb denotes the sufferer, or the 
receiver of the action. 

The nominative to a Neuter verb denotes merely the subject of 
the verb. 




ACTIVE. 



PASSIVE. 



NEUTER. 



Examples to be Parsed 

In ichick it is required of the pupil (hi addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercise*) to 
distinguish, and parse, the passive and the neutet verbs. 

I strike. I am struck. I am quiet. I struck. I was struck. I was 
quiet. I have struck the boy, I have been struck by the man. The 
man has struck the boy. The boy has been struck by the man. He is 
easy. He beats the boy. The boy is beaten by him. The lottery is 
drawn by the manager. The manager draws the lottery. The goods 
were purchased by the merchant. The merchant purchased the goods. 
Health is promoted by exercise. Exercise promotes health. The thief 
was taken by the officer. The officer took the thief. The goods were 
sold by the auctioneer. The auctioneer sold the goods. The house was 
furnished. The rogue was detected. I am in good health. Thou 



50 EXERCISES IN 

art in business. He is in Europe. We are in good company. You arc 
with your friends. They are in constant employment. 

Rule 16. A perfect participle , unconnected with an auxiliary r 
relates to the noun or the pronoun which it qualifies or describes* 

Examples to be Parsed* 

In which ilis required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises') 
to distinguish, and parse, the perfect participles, and to apply Rule } 6. 

The captain found the ship considerably injured. He discovered a 
soldier badly wounded. They left the prison strongly guarded. He met 
a gentleman neatly dressed. We saw a man sorely afflicted. My neigh- 
bor purchased a house well furnished. Some pieces of timber curiously 
carved, floated ashore. You saw a letter badly written. He saw a horse 
wilfully abused. The farm was sold. The rogue was detected by the 
merchant. The boys, having finished their task, had permission to play. 
He loves to read and write. 

Rule 17. Intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, take the same 
case after, as that which next precedes them, when both words refer 
to the same person or thing. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish, and parse, the several nouns and pronouns in the nominative case after the several 
verbs, and to apply Rule 17. 

Washington was a brave general, and an able statesman. This gen- 
tleman is my protector and friend. Addison is a teacher of wisdom, and 
a faithful copier of life and manners. Death is the king of terrors. I 
know him to be my friend. Who does he think that we are ? She fell 
a victim to despair. She walks a goddess, and she moves a queen. Her 
name was called Penelope. Bonaparte was made emperor of France. 
They know him to be well qualified for the duty which he has under- 
taken. The estate was owned by the family. Remember thy Creator 
in the days of thy youth. 

Rule 18. Tivo or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, meaning 
the same thing, and having the same grammatical relation, are put 
by apposition in the same case. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the disti?ictions made in the preceding exercises) t& 
distinguish the nouns and the pronouns in apposition, and to apply Rule 18. 

Artaxerxes, the king, decreed that Ezra, the priest and scribe of the 
law, should be obeyed in all things. Paul, the apostle, was a preacher 
of righteousness. I paid the money to the merchant, him who bought 
your house. My neighbor has two sons, Henry and James. Smithy the 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 51 

tailor, made my coat. An honest man is the noblest work of God. Na- 
than said unto David, Thou art the man. He was caught by the officer, 
and condemned by the court. He can go if he chooses. 

Rule 19 A verb having two or more nominatives, connected by 
the copulative and, must be of the plural form. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

in which it is required of Ike pupil (in addition to Uie distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish the words connected by and, and, «/t parsing the verbs agreeing with them, to apply 
Rule 19. 

Diligence and frugality are material duties of the young. Wealth and 
titles are the gifts of fortune. Peace and contentment are the peculiar 
endowments of a well-disposed mind. Time and tide wait for no man. 
Quin, the comedian, was a great wit. Industry and economy will make 
a man rich. Patience and diligence will remove mountains. You and 1 
read daily. He and she will see him and them. Who came with you ? 
The house was badly injured by ih*e- The vessel was destroyed. If 
you study, you will improve. 

Rule 20. A verb having two or more nominatives of the singular 
number, connected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of tlr 
singular form. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding ezercists) to 
distinguish t/ie words connected by ok and nor, and, on parsing the verbs which agree with them, 
to apply Rule 20. 

The master or his servant is greatly in fault. Indolence or intem- 
perance is the cause of his misfortune. He or she has done this mis- 
chief Henry or his brother has seen him to-day. Charles and William 
go to school constantly, and they improve very fast. The sun that rolls 
over our heads, the food that we receive, and the rest that we enjoy, daily 
admonish us of a superior and superintending power. Either his pride 
or his folly disgusts us. Neither Mary nor Laura has returned from 
school. He will have recited his lesson before we arrive. 

Rule 21. When a noun or a pronoun has no verb to agree with 
it) but is placed before a participle, it is in the case absolute. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

[n which it is required oj 'the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
distinguish, and parse, the icurds in the case absolute, and to apply Rule 21. 

The business being finished, the court adjourned. The sun being 
risen, the day became fine. The orator having finished his discourse, 
the people retired. The winter being severe, the inhabitants suffered. 
Barlow, the bookseller, has published the Garland, a valuable work. No 
friend being here, I sit and weep. The goods being considerably dam- 



52 EXERCISES IN 

aged, the merchants sold them very low. Which boy studies most ? He 
might have secured the place, if he had taken the proper means. The 
cloak of honor covers all their faults, as that of passion, all their follies. 
The house having been sold, the family left it. 

Rule 22. When a direct address is made to a person or thing, 
the noun or the pronoun representing such person or thing, is in the 
case independent* 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding- exercises) to 
distinguish, and parse, the words in the case independent, and to apply Rule 22. 

Plato, thou reasonest well ! It must be so. Hail, wedded love, per- 
petual fountain of domestic sweets ! Oh, stretch thy reign, fair Peace, 
from shore to shore ! My son, go to thy repose. O Grave, where is thy 
victory? O Death, where is thy sting? Ye men of Galilee, why stand 
ye gazing up unto heaven ? Boys, study your lessons. Girls, you must 
improve every hour. Pompey was conquered by Cassar. Homer is 
styled the prince of poets. The storm being over, the men resumed 
their work. Come, Peace of mind, delightful guest ! 

Rule 23. A verb in the infinitive mode, or a part of a sentence, 
is sometimes the subject of a finite verb, and therefore its nominative. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) to 
distinguish, and parse, the phrases that form the nominatives to the several verbs, and to apply 
Rule 23. 

To err is human nature — to forgive, divine. To eat is pleasant, but 
to fast is wholesome. To be well acquainted ivith one's native language, is 
nothing to boast of; but not to be well acquainted ivith it, is a disgrace. To 
write well requires practice. To mourn without measure is folly ; not to 
mourn at all is insensibility. Continue, my dear daughter, to make 
virtue thy principal study. Living in the city exposes the young to many 
temptations. 

Rule 24. When the participle of the neuter verb be {preceded 
by a transitive verb or a preposition) is accompanied by a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb, it frequently makes part of a substantive 
phrase ; and the whole phrase is in the objective case, and governed 
by such preceding transitive verb or preposition. 

Examples to be Parsedj 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the distinctions made in the preceding exercises) 
to distinguish, and parse, the phrases whicli form the objects of the preceding transitive verbs or 
prepositions. 

An Indian will resent his being denied the use of Ms musket. The 
atrocious crime of being a young man, I will neither attempt to palliate 

* All nouns of the second person are in the case independent. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 53 

nor deny. It is a remarkable instance of a man's being the artificer of 
his own fortune. Some young persons begin with being ridiculous, 
and end with being vicious and immoral* To live is Christ ; to die is gain. 
Thou shalt not steal, is a commandment. Men and brethren, what shall 
we do ? Friends, I come not here to talk, but to listen. These are thy 
glorious works, Parent of good! The hour having arrived, the good 
people commenced their devotions. 

Remark 1. Participles are often used as nouns j and they have a like effect 
in governing nouns in the possessive case. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

He had no idea of his friend's betraying him. Who ever heard of a 
verb's running ? The man's being dismissed from office, was a misfor- 
tune to his family. 

Remark 2. A participle, with its adjunct, sometimes forms a participial 
phrase, which phrase may form the subject of a verb ; or the object of a verb, 
or of a preposition. 

Examples to be Parsed, 

Administering to the wants of the unfortunate, constitutes her chief em- 
ployment By exposing himself unnecessarily, he soon lost his health* 
She studied to avoid expressing herself too severely. 

Remark 3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mode. 
They may likewise belong to sentences, phrases, or propositions. 

Examples to be Parsed. 

To ride is pleasant For to say, a man has a positive, clear idea of anjf 
quantity, without knowing how great it is, is as unreasonable as to say, he 
has a positive, clear idea of the number of sands on the sea-shore, — Locke. 

Remark 4. When a verb in the infinitive mode stands independent of the 
rest of the sentence, it is said to be absolute ; as, " To confess the truth, 1 was 
in fault." 

Remark 5. The definite article is frequenfly applied to adverbs, both of the 
comparative, and of the superlative degree; forming adverbial phrases. The 
effect of this idiomatic use of the definite article, is to mark the degree the 
more strongly, and to define it the more precisely ; as, The more 1 examine it, 
the better I like it." 

Remark 6. The indefinite article, sometimes, precedes a plural noun, when 
the word/eio, or the words great and many, immediately precede the noun ; as,, 
u a few trees," "a great many houses." In such instances, the article refers 
to the number of things implied, taken collectively* (See page 72.) 

* In the opinion of some grammarians, these words constitute a substantive phrase, in> 
the nominative case ; as, " A few soldiers aided him ; M or in the objective case ; as r 
"They took a few pHsoners." — After parsing the words composing any phrase, sub~ 
stantive or adverbial, collectively, it should be analyzed y. and each word parsed separately* 



54 EXERCISES IN 



OF ELLIPSIS. 

The omission of any words necessary to the grammatical construc- 
tion of a sentence, is called Ellipsis ; as, " I beg you will come," for 
"I beg that you will come;" "I rose at seven," for "I rose at seven of 
the clock" 

The principal design of ellipsis is to avoid repetitions, and to express 
our ideas in few words. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical : it is, there- 
fore, very necessary to attend to this figure, or mode of expression. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE NOUN. 

" She is a good-natured, diligent, ivell-behaved girl ; " instead of " She 
is a good-natured (girl, and a) diligent (girl, and a) well-behaved 
girl." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

"Much rain and snow ;" i. e. "Much rain and (much) snow." — tL A de- 
lightful garden and orchard ; " L e. "A delightful garden and (a delight- 
ful) orchard." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ARTICLE. 

"A man, woman, and child;" i. e. "A man, (a) woman, and (a) child." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE VERB. 

" J desire to hear and to learn ; " i. e. " I desire to hear, and (J desire) to 
learn."— " She was young, and beautiful, and good; " i. e. " She was young, 
and (she was) beautiful, and (sht ivas) good." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADVERB. 

" They sing and play most delightfully ; " i. e. " They sing (most deligM- 
fully,) and (they) play most delightfully." — "She reads and writes well;" 
i, e. " She reads (well,) and (she) writes well " 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PERSONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

U I love and fear him;" i. e. "I love (him,) and (1) fear him." — "i Jiave 
read the book you lent me ; " i. e. " I have read the book (which) you lent 
me."—" This is the man they love ; " i. e. " This is the man (whom) they 
love." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

" J desire you will be good ; " i. e. " I desire (that) you will be good." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PREPOSITION. 

li I gave them to your brother and sister;" i. e. "I gave them to your 
brother and (to your) sister." 

ELLIPSIS OF THE INTERJECTION. 

« Qh, pity and shame I " i. e. " Ob, pity ! Oh, shame I " 



ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, fcc. 55 

ELLIPSIS OF A PART OF A SENTENCE. 

" Nature has given to animals one time to act, another to rest ; " i. e. 
"Nature has given to animals one time to act (and nature has given to 
animals) another (time) to rest." 

"There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their 
own characters." " There is nothing (in ivhich) men are more deficient, 
than (in) knowing their own characters." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis: — 
"Wo is me;" i. e. "Wo is to me."— "To let blood;" i. e. "To let out 
blood."—" To let down ; " i. e. " To let it fall or slide down."—" To walk 
a mile;" i. e. "To walk through the space of a mile." — "To sleep all 
night ; " i. e. " To sleep through all the night." — " To go a fishing," " To 
go a hunting ; " i. e. " To go on a fishing voyage or business," " To go on 
a hunting party." — "I dine at two o'clock," i. e. "at two of the clock."— 
il By sea, by land, on shore ; " i. e. " By the sea, by the land, on the shore." 



OF TRANSPOSITION OR INVERSION. 

There are two kinds of style — the natural, and the inverted, or 
transposed. 

A natural style is that in which the words succeed each other in their 
natural order. 

An inverted or transposed style is that in which the words are thrown 
out of their natural order, for the sake of some superior beauty: but it is 
seldom of advantage to invert the style, except in poetry. 

Examples. 

" Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring 
Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess, sing." 
Natural order. " Heavenly goddess, sing the wrath of Achilles, the 
direful spring of unnumbered woes to Greece." 

"No bounds the Almighty's glory can restrain, 
Nor time's dimensions terminate his reign : 
At his reproof convulsive nature shakes, 
And shivering earth from its foundation quakes." 
Natural order. "No bounds can restrain the glory of the Almighty, 
nor can the dimensions of time terminate his reign : convulsive nature 
shakes at his reproof, and shivering earth quakes from its foundation." 

" Men in adversity most plain appear : 
It shows us really what and who they are : 
Then from their lips truth undissembled flows ; 
The mask falls off; and the just features shows." 
Natural order. "Men appear most plain in adversity: it shows us 
really what (they are,) and who they are : then, undissembled truth flows 
from their lips ; the mask falls off, and shows their just features." 



56 



EXERCISES IN 



A FEW INSTANCES OF THE SAME WORD'S CONSTITUTING 
SEVERAL OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

[The following examples are explained on p. 139.] 



All. ( l )All is not gold that glis- 
tens. ( 2 ) Jill men are born free and 
equal. The cup was ( 3 ) all filled. 

As. [*)-•#& he passed along, his 
ears were delighted with the morn- 
ing song of the birds of Paradise. 
Such ( 2 ) as believe shall be saved. 
( 3 ) As you are indisposed, I will re- 
tire. 

Both. He is esteemed ( l )both 
on his own account, and on ac- 
count of his parents. ( 2 ) Both of 
them deserve praise. 

But. The path of glory leads 

( 1 ) but to the grave. She is hand- 
some, ( 2 ) but she is not amiable. 
And all ( :i ) but Plato gazed with joy. 

Calm. ( l ) Calm was the day, and 
the scene delightful. We may ex- 
pect a ( 2 ) calm after a storm. He 
(^calmed their anxious fears. 

Damp. (*) Damp air is unwhole- 
some. Guilt often casts a ( 2 )damp 
over our sprightly hours. Soft 
bodies ( 3 ) damp the sound much 
more than hard ones. 

Enough. He has money (') e- 
nough, he has lived long ( 2 ) enough, 
and has had ( 3 ) enough of this 
world's goods. Parkhurst. 

For. I will submit, ( l )for I know 
that submission brings peace. It 
is ( 2 )for our heaith to be temperate. 

Hail. We ( l ) hail you as friends. 

( 2 ) Hail virtue ! source of eveiy 
good. The ( 3 ) hail was very de- 
structive. 

Like. Every being loves its 
(- 1 ) like. We must make a ( 2 ) like 
space between the lines. Behave 

( 3 ) like men. We are too apt to ( 4 ) like 
pernicious company. He may go 
or stay, as he ( 4 ) likes.. 



Little. Better is a ( ] ) little with 
content, than a great deal with anx- 
iety. A ( 2 ) little attention will rec- 
tify some errors. The gay and dis- 
solute think ( 3 ) little of the miseries 
which are stealing softly after them. 

Long. He has (*) long been sore- 
ly afflicted. He ( 2 ) longs to see his 
friends. He told a ( 3 ) long story. 

Much. He has seen ( l ) much of 
the world, and been ( 2 ) much caress- 
ed. ( 3 )Much learning hath made 
thee mad. < 

Since. I have not seen him 
( * ) since that time. I have seen your 
friend ( 2 ) since I saw you. Let us 
return, ( 3 ) since the affair cannot be 
settled. 

Still. Though he is out of dan- 
ger, he is ( l ) still afraid. I thought 
so then, and I think so ( 2 ) still. He 
labored to ( 3 ) still the tumult. ( 4 ) Still 
w 7 aters are commonly deepest. 

That. An eclipse of the sun 
took place on (*) that day. Why 
is our language less refined than 
( 2 )that of France ? I hope ( 3 ) that 
we shall arrive in season. He is 
the most generous person ( 4 ) that 
ever lived. 

To. ( l ) To is a preposition. They 
strove ( 2 ) to learn. He goes ( 3 ) to 
and fro. The proportion is ten 
( 4 ) to one. 

To-morrow. ( j ) To-morrow may 
be brighter than to-day. I shaft 
write ( 2 ) to-morroiv. 

Utmost. He has served them 
with his ( l ) utmost ability. When 
we do our ( 2 ) utmost, no more is re- 
quired. 

Yesterday. ( l ) Yesterday was a 
fine day. I rode out ( 2 ) yesterday. 



PARSING, &C. 



57 



PR03IISCU0US EXERCISES TO BE PARSED. 



I would rather be myself* the 
slave, and wear the chains, than 
fasten them on him. 

He extols what he sees.f 

Rex and Ty rami us are of very 
different characters. One J rules 
his people by laws to which they 
consent ; the other J by his absolute 
will and power ; that § is called 
freedom, this, § tyranny. 

He was laughed at by his com- 
panions, and talked of by all who 
knew him. 

He rose and rebuked the winds, 
and said unto the sea, " Peace, be 
still ! " 

I will give you a solution of the 
comma, and, and it. 

Why make ye this ado? The 
damsel is not dead, but sleepeth. 

Who do men say that I am ? 

Let usefulness and beneficence, 
not ostentation and vanity, direct 
the train of your pursuits. 

I wish to have the servant come 
hither. 

Give us this day our daily bread. 

What do people say it is ? 

They were spoken to respecting 
that subject. 

Desire, not reason, will be the 
ruling principle of our conduct. 

He has gone a hunting, and he 
will walk many miles. 

The man being dismissed from 
office, his family suffered. 



The boy's being confined, was a 
grief to his parents. 

Ye are one || another's joy. Be 
ye helpers one of another. 

They love each other. H 

Whom do you imagine it to have 
been ? 

Wljat sculpture is to a block of 
marble, education is to the human 
soul. 

If thine enemy be hungry, give 
him bread to eat ; if he be thirsty, 
give him water to drink. 

A judge should speak sitting; 
a pleader, standing. 

What is the bigot's torch, the 
tyrant's chain ? 

Junius Brutus, the son of Marcus 
Brutus, and Collatinus, the husband 
of Lucretia, were chosen first con- 
suls of Rome. 

On the same night, he dreamed 
a dream. 

Properly speaking, there are but 
three genders. 

There being much obscurity in the 
case, he refuses to decide upon it. 

To learn, is our duty. 

I have some recollection of my 
father's being a judge. 

He called the company, man by 
man. 

Celadon and Amelia were a 
matchless pair. 

He took off his hat, and put on 
his wig. 



* The words myself, himself, ourselves, themselves^ &c, are called compound per- 
sonal pronouns. 

f What is a compound pronoun, including both the antecedent and the relative, and 
is here equivalent to that which. u He extols that which he sees." — That is a de- 
monstrative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, in the objective case, and 
is governed by extols. WhicJi is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular 
number, in the objective case, and governed by sees (agreeing with tliat, its ante- 
cedent, according to Rule 7.) 

X When the words some, one, any, other, all, such, are not prefixed to nouns, ex- 
pressed or understood, they are called indefinite pronouns. 

§ When the words this, that, these, those, former, and latter, stand for nouns, they 
are demonstrative pronouns. 

|| The pronoun one is often used in the possessive case ; as, " One is apt to love one's 
self." This word is also often used in the plural number j as, " The great ones of the 
world." 

IT The pronoun other is likewise used in the plural number 5 as, " He pleases some^ 
and disgusts others," 



58 EXERCISES IN 

Catiline, the leader and contriver done writing the writing, the wri- 
of the plot, was there. j ting paper is written, or becomes 

Nero rendered himself a detesta- j written paper, 
ble tyrant. O'er hilis and dales they wend 



their way. 

They went their ways, one to his 
farm, another to his merchandise. 



Though is not a noun, nor is it 
a pronoun. 

The writer writes a writing on 
writing paper ; and when he has 

Dissimulation in youth is the forerunner of perfidy in old age. Its 
first appearance is the fatal omen of growing depravity and future shame. 

If we possess not the power of self-government, we shall be the prey 
of every loose inclination that chances to arise. Pampered by continual 
indulgence, all our passions will become mutinous and headstrong. De- 
sire, not reason, will be the ruling principle of our conduct. 

Absurdly we spend our time in contending about the trifles of a day, 
while we ought to be preparing for a higher existence. 

How little do they know of the true happiness of life, who are stran- 
gers to that intercourse of good offices and kind affections, which, by a 
pleasing charm, attaches men to one another, and circulates rational 
enjoyment from heart to heart. 

If we view ourselves, with all our imperfections and failings, in a just 
light, we shall rather be surprised at our enjoying so many good things, 
than discontented because there are any which we want. 

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the 
happiness of all around him. It is the clear and calm sunshine of a 
mind illuminated by piety and virtue. 

Wherever views of interest, and prospects of return, mingle with the 
feelings of affection, sensibility acts an imperfect part, and entitles us to 
small share of commendation. 

Let not your expectations from the years that are to come, rise too 
high, and your disappointments will be fewer, and more easily sup- 
ported. 

To live long, ought not to be our favorite wish, so much as to live 
well. 

Be not overcome by the injuries you meet with, so as to pursue re- 
venge ; by the disasters of life, so as to sink into despair ; by the evil 
examples of the world, so as to follow them into sin. Overcome inju- 
ries by forgiveness, disasters by fortitude, evil examples by firmness 
of principle. 

EXERCISES IN POETRY. 

Order is Heaven's first law ; and, this confessed, 
Some are, and must be, greater than the rest, — 
More rich, more wise : but who infers from hence 
That such are happier, shocks all common sense. 

Needful austerities our wills restrain, 

As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm. 



parsing, he. • 59 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lie in three words — health, peace, and competence ; 
But health consists with temperance alone ; 
And peace, O virtue ! peace is all thy own. 

On earth, nought precious is obtained, but what is painful too ; 
By travel and to travel born, our Sabbaths are but few. 

Who noble ends by noble means obtains, 
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, 
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. 

Oft pining cares in rich brocades are dressed, 
And diamonds glitter on an anxious breast. 

Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
As, to be hated, needs but to be seen ; 
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
We first endure, then pity, then embrace. 

If nothing more than purpose in thy power, 
Thy purpose, firm, is equal to the deed : 
Who does the best his circumstance allows, 
Does well, acts nobly; angels could no more. 

Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, 
Their sober wishes never learned to stray : 

Along the cool, sequestered vale of life, 
They kept the noiseless tenor of their way. 

All fame is foreign, but of true desert, 

Plays round the head, but comes not to the heart. 

One self-approving hour whole years outweighs 

Of stupid starers and of loud huzzas ; 

And more true joy Marcellus, exiled, feels, 

Than Csesar with a senate at his heels. 

Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor ; 
Who lives to fancy, never can be rich. 

When young life's journey I began, 

The glittering prospect charmed my eyes ; 

I saw, along th' extended plain, 
Joy after joy successive rise. 

But soon I found 'twas all a dream, 

And learned the fond pursuit to shun, 
Where few can reach their purposed aim, 

And thousands daily are undone. 

'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours, 
And ask them what report they bore to Heaven. 

All nature is but art, unknown to thee ; 

All chance, direction which thou canst not see ; 

All discord, harmony not understood ; 

All partial evil, universal good. 



60 EXERCISES IN 

Heaven's choice is safer than our own : of ages past inquire, 
What the most formidable fate ? " To have our own desire." 

And darkness and doubt are now flying away ! 

No longer I roam in conjecture forlorn. 
So breaks on the traveller, faint and astray, 

The bright and the balmy effulgence of morn. 
See truth, love, and mercy, in triumph descending, 

And nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom ! 
On the cold cheek of death smiles and roses are blending, 

And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb ! 

Language. — Ne al. 

And what is language ? Language is the power 

Whereby, as with the arrowy light of him, 

The broad, brave sun, that flashes through the sky 

Uninterrupted glory, Thought goes forth, 

From mind to mind, flash after flash, forever: 

At first a little fountain bubbled up 

Within the desert or the wilderness, 

The outlet to a mine of wealth — of power — 

Ten thousand times more precious than the earth, 

Glittering with diamonds or charged with ore, 

That man, short-sighted man, would perish for — 

A treasury of thought and speech : anon, 

It filtered forth, and rolled a brook — 

A streamlet then — a river — then a sea. 

Behold it now! It overspreads the earth. 

Nothing formed in vain. — Thomson. 

Let no presuming, impious railer tax 
Creative Wisdom, as if aught was formed 
In vain, or not for admirable ends. 
Shall little, haughty Ignorance pronounce 
His works unwise, of which the smallest part 
Exceeds the narrow vision of her mind ? 
As if, upon a full-proportioned dome, 
On swelling columns heaved, the pride of ait, 
A critic fly, whose feeble ray scarce spreads 
An inch around, with blind presumption bold, 
Should dare to tax the structure of the whole ! 

And lives the man whose universal eye • 

Has swept at once th' unbounded scheme of things, — 

Marked their dependence so, and firm accord, 

As with unfaltering accent to conclude 

That this avail eth nought ? Has any seen 

The mighty chain of beings, lessening down 

From infinite perfection to the brink 

Of dreary nothing — desolate abyss ! — 

From which astonished thought, recoiling, turns ? 

Till then, alone let zealous praise ascend, 

And hymns of holy wonder, to that Power, 



PARSING, 8lC. 



61 



Whose wisdom shines as lovely in our minds, 
As on our smiling eyes his servant sun. 



QJ 5 * For explanations of difficult constructions, idioms, fyc, the 
pupil is referred to the Appendix, page 123. 



OF THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The same preposition, generally speaking, should follow a noun or 
an adjective, as would properly follow the verb from which the noun or 
adjective is derived. 



•equire of. 



Acquit, } 

Accuse, > require of. 

Abhorrence, } 

Agreeable, } 

Averse, > require to. 

Adapted, } 

Brag, 

Boast, 

Bestow requires upon. 
Contend requires^/br or with. 

Conversant, ) ^ 
Call requires on. 
Consonant, } 
Conformable, > require to. 
Correspondent, ) 

Caufaon'requires against. 
Compliance requires with. 
Divide requires into. 

Diminution, ) . /. 

Disapprove, $ " J ' 
Differ, ;■ j 

Derogation, > require from. 
Dissent, j 



Dependent requires upon. 
Discouragement requires to. 
Disappointment requires in or of. 
Enter requires in or into. 
Engaged, ) 

Eager,^ \ re( l™™ «* 
Exception re qu ires from. 
Expert requires in or at. 
Founded requires on. 
Glad requires of or at. 
Insist requires upon. 
Martyr requires for. 
Need requires of. 
Observance requires of. 
Profit requires by. 
Prejudice requires against. 
Provide requires with. 
PrerewZ requires over. 
Reduce requires under or to. 
Replete requires with. 
Resemblance requires to. 
Swerve requ ires from. 
Think requires of or on. 
Taste requires of or for. 
True requires to. 
Wait requires on. 



OF THE IMPROPER USE OF WORDS AND PHRASES. 

The phrases more perfect and most perfect are improper, because per- 
fection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say nearer or 
nearest to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

When the comparative degree of an adjective is used, the latter 
term of comparison should not include the former. It is, therefore, 



62 EXERCISES IN 

improper to say, " The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings : " 
we should say, " than any other writings." 

When the superlative degree of an adjective is used, the latter term of 
comparison should never exclude the former. Therefore, instead of say- 
ing, " Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable," we 
should say, " of all vices," &c. 

Farther applies to place and distance; and further to quantity or 
addition. 

Later or latter cannot be used indifferently, with propriety: latter refers 
to place ; later respects time only. 

The phrase "seldom or ever" is improper: we should either say "sel- 
dom, if ever" or " seldom or never." 

" I had rather " is often improperly used instead of " I would 
rather." 

To lay (to place something), in the present tense, is properly written 
lay, in the imperfect laid; the perfect participle also is laid. To lie 
(down) is lie in the present tense, lay in the imperfect, and lain m the 
perfect participle. Lie is conjugated regularly when it means to teil a 
falsehood ; as, " He lied," "He has lied." 

Set is an intransitive verb in some senses, which makes it proper to 
say, "To set out on a journey;" "To set up in business;" "The sun 
sets," and "Fair weather has set in." 

The following are examples of mistakes in the use of the transitive 
verbs lay and set, and of the intransitive verbs lie and sit, with the cor- 
rection after each : — 

" He lays in bed too long " (lies). " I have a work laying by me " 
(lying). "Go and lay down" (lie). "I laid and slept an hour " (lay), 
" I was laying on the grass " (lying). " He has laid there a long time " 
(lain). " He has lain himself down to rest " (laid). " Let me set 
down" (sit). " I afterwards went and set down " (sat). "He sat him- 
self down " (set). " The hen is setting on her eggs " (sitting). " The 
wind sits in the east " (sets). 

The verb to learn is never used transitively, except when it has for 
its subject the person who obtains the knowledge or information, and 
for its only object the knowledge or information obtained. It is proper 
to say, " I am learning grammar ; " but improper to say, " The master 
learns me grammar," instead of teaches me ; or " Learn me to do that," 
instead of " Teach me." 

Tautology, which means the repeating of a word or an idea that has 
been fully expressed before, is a frequent error in composition. 

The verb to return signifies to go or come back ; go or come again ; 
yet we sometimes hear and read the phrases, return back — and return 
again — and even return back again. 

To converse means to talk together : therefore it is wrong to say, " They 
are conversing together" 



PARSING, &C. 



63 



To fall includes the idea of down, as to rise does that of up ; for we 
cannot say, to fall up, or to rise down. It is therefore improper, because 
it is unnecessary, to say, " Fall down" or " Rise up" 

The adjective mutual includes the meaning of the words each other, 
or one another : therefore it is wrong to say, " They bear a mutual like- 
ness to each other." 

To enter means to go (or come) in : therefore we should not say, " En- 
ter in" 



Restore means to give back : therefore it is wrong to say of a thing, 
u I restore it back, or again" &c. 

The phrases first of all, last of all, are improper : one of the things 
mentioned, or attended to, cannot be first, if any of the others are 
before it ; and certainly, if a thing is not last of all, it cannot be the 
last 

It is wrong to use both, when the two things under consideration have 
been expressly named ; as, " I took some wine and some water, and 
mixed them both together ;" "I saw two chairs fastened both together ; " 
" My brother called on me, and we both took a walk." 

Throughout expresses the idea of through all, or through every part : 
we should not say, therefore, " I searched all the country throughout," 
or, ■ We found these sentiments throughout the whole book." 

In the expression "I have just now written," the adverb now is redun- 
dant, and ought to be expunged. 



UNGRAMMATICAL WORDS AND PHRASES CORRECTED. 



UN GRAMMATICAL. 

He only spoke three words. 
He is seldom or ever right. 
He said how that he would go. 
They never will believe but what 

I am to blame. 
Be it never so true. 
Where are you going ? 
Are you travelling there ? 
I have not hearn the story. 
I catched cold last evening. 
They rode in a horse and chay. 
Who did you speak to ? 
Was I an officer, &c. 
He has got it. 
Who finds him in money ? 
He put money in his pocket. 



CORRECTED. 

He spoke only three words. 
He is seldom if ever right. 
He said that he would go. 
They never will believe but that I 

am to blame. 
Be it ever so true. 
Whither are you going ? 
Are you travelling thither? 
I have not heard the story. 
I caught cold last evening. 
They rode in a one-horse chaise. 
To whom did you speak ? 
Were I an officer, &c. 
He has it. 

Who finds him money ? 
He put money into his pocket. 



64 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, &C, 



The report was founded in truth. 

This house is to let. 

1 shall call upon him. 

Is the gentleman in ? 

He covered it over. 

If I had have known it earlier. 

Frequent opportunity. 

He had'nt ought to do it. 

He killed them dead. 

Give me them books. 

The villain was hung. 

He mentioned it over again. 

I done it myself. 

I have eat heartily. 

It lays on the table. 

He is laying down. 

He is quite the gentleman. 

He seed him afore. 

The fields are overflown 

Overseer over his house. 

Opposite the church. 

This here. 

That there. 

I an't cold. 

We wer'nt there. 

He came in town this morning. 

Whether he will or no. 

We go to church for to worship. 

I cannot by no means allow it. 

All over the country. 

Be that as it will. 

He answered and said. 

He knows nothing on it. 

They both met together. 

I had rather not. 

Says I. 

He is one of my acquaintance. 

I intended to have rewarded him. 



The report was founded on truth. 

This house is to be let. 

I shall call on him. 

Is the gentleman within ? 

He covered it. 

If I had known it earlier. 

Frequent opportunities. 

He ought not to do it. 

He killed them. 

Give me those books. 

The villain was hanged. 

He mentioned it again. 

I did it myself. 

I have eaten heartily. 

It lies on the table. 

He is lying down. 

He is a gentleman. 

He saw him before. 

The fields are overflowed. 

Overseer of his house. 

Opposite to the church. 

This. 

That. 

I am not cold. 

We were not there. 

He came into town this morning. 

Whether he will or not. 

We go to church to worship. 

I can by no means allow it. 

Over all the country. 

Be that as it may. 

He answered. 

He knows nothing of it. 

They met. 

I would rather not. 

Said I. 

He is one of my acquaintances. 

I intended to reward him. 



ETYMOLOGY 



Etymology ] treats of the different sorts of words, their derivations, 
and their various modifications. 

[Etymology is compounded of two Greek words, which signify origin and 
word. It means, literally, the derivation of a word from its original.] 

There 2 are in English ten sorts of words, or, as they are commonly 
called, parts of speech; namely, the Noun, the Adjective, the Article, the 
Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Pronoun, the Conjunction, the 
Preposition, and the Interjection.* 



OF NOUNS. 

A Noun 3 is the name of any thing that we can see, taste, hear, smell, 
feel, or conceive of; as, man, wine, virtue. 

[The word noun is derived from the Latin word nomen, which signifies name.] 

Nouns are A divided into two general classes — proper and common. 

A Proper 5 Noun is the name of some particular individual, thing, 
person, or people ; as, George, Portland, Mississippi, the Saxons. 

A Common 6 Noun is the name of a sort, class, or kind of things ; as, 
animal, man, tree, &c. 

Common Nouns 7 maybe subdivided into the following classes, viz. 
collective, abstract, and participial. 

A Collective 8 Noun, or Noun of Multitude, is the name of a number of 
individuals taken together ; as, army, council, committee, &c. 

An Abstract 9 Noun is the name of a quality, considered apart from its 
substance ; as, ichiteness, hardness, goodness, pride, &c. 

A Participial 10 or Verbal Noun is the name of an action, or a state of 
being. It is derived from a verb, like a participle, but is used as a noun ; 
as, the beginning, the ending ; writing, reading, living, &c. 

Questions. 

(1) What does ETYMOLOGY treat of ?— (2) How many sorts of words are there 1 
— (3) What is a noun ? — (4) How are nouns divided ? — (5) What is a proper noun ?— 
(6) What is a common noun ? — (7) How may common nouns be subdivided ? — (8) What 
is a collective noun 1 — (9) What is an abstract noun ? — (10) What is & participial noun ? 

* The English language contains in all about forty thousand words. 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

- 

A proper I noun or name, with an article prefixed to it, is used as a 
common name ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age ; " " He is reading the 
lives of the twelve Casars." 

Nouns 2 have four properties, namely, person, number, gender, and 
case. 

\ Of Person. 

By Person, 3 in grammar, are meant the variations in the form of 
words (and their different relations in a sentence or discourse) which 
distinguish the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or the 
thing spoken of. * 

There 4 are three persons, viz. the first, the second, and the third. 

The First 5 Person denotes the speaker ; the Second, the person spoken 
to ; and the Third, the person or the tl^ng spoken of. 

Of Number. 

By Number, 6 in grammar, are meant the variations in the form of 
words which distinguish unity and plurality. 

Nouns 7 are of two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

The 8 Singular Number denotes but one object ; as, a chair, a table. 

The 9 Plural Number signifies more objects than one ; as, chairs, 
tables. 

Some 10 nouns, from the nature of the things which they express, 
have the singular form only ; as, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. ; — 
others have the plural form only; as, 11 bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 

Some 12 words have the same form in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, 
swine, &c. 

The 13 plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the 
singular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; thought, thoughts. But 14 when the 
noun singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural ; as, 
box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses ; rebus, rebuses. 
If the singular 15 ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by adding s ; as, 
monarch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 

The 16 plural of nouns ending in o is, sometimes, formed by adding es 
to the singular ; as, cargo, cargoes ; echo, echoes ; hero, heroes ; negro, 
negroes ; manifesto, manifestoes ; potato, potytoes ; volcano, volcanoes ; wo, 
ivoes ; — and, sometimes, by adding s only; as, folio, folios; seraglio, 
seraglios, &c. 

Questions. 

(1) When a proper noun has an article prefixed to it, how is it used? — (2) How 
many properties have nouns ?•— (3) What is person ? — (4) How many persons are there? 
—(5) What does each person denote ? — (6) What is number ? — (7) How many numbers 
are there ? — (8) What does the singular number denote ? — (9) what does the plural 
number signify ?— (10) Give examples of nouns used in the singular form only.— 
(11) Give examples of nouns used in the plural form only. — (12) Give examples of 
words having the same form in both numbers.— (13) How is the plural number of nouns 
generally formed? — (14) How is the plural number of such nouns as end in x, ch soft. 
ss, or s, in the singular, formed ?— (15) If the singular ends in ch hard, how is the plural 
formed ?-— (16) How is the plural number of nouns ending in o formed ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



67 



Nouns 1 ending in/ or ft are rendered plural by the change of those 
terminations into ves ; as, loaf, loaves ; half halves ; wife, wives ; except 
grief relief reproof and several others, which form the plural by the 
addition of s. Those which end in ff have the regular plural; as, ruff, 
ruffs ; except staff, the plural of which is staves. 

Nouns 2 which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in the same 
syllable, change it into ies in the plural; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. 
But the y is not changed when there is another vowel in the syllable ; 
as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

Some 3 nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular into e ; 
as, man, men; woman, women; alderman, aldermen. The words ox 
and 4 child form oxen and children ; brother makes either brothers or breth- 
ren. Sometimes 5 the diphthong oa is changed into ee in the plural ; as, 
foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse make lice and mice. 
Penny makes pence, or pennies, when the coin is meant; die, dice (for 
play) ; die, dies (for coining}. 

It is agreeable 6 to analogy, and the practice of the generality of correct 
writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns ; pains, riches, 
vims ; and also mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneumatics, 
with other similar names of sciences. 

The word 7 news is now almost universally considered as belonging to 
die singular number. 

The 8 noun means is used both in the singular and the plural number. 

The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew, 
Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, with respect to 
number : — 



Singular. 

Cherub, 9 

Seraph, 

Antithesis, 

Automaton, 

Basis, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Diseresis, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Hypothesis, 

Metamorphosis, 

Phenomenon, 

Appendix > < 

Questions. 

(1) How are nouns ending in/ or fe rendered plural ? — (2) How do nouns ending in 
y in the singular, form their plurals ?-^(3) What nouns form their plurals by changing a 
into e ? — (4) How is the plural of the words child, ox, and brother, formed ? — (5) What 
nouns form their plurals by changing the diphthong oo into ee 1 — (6) How are the nouns 
pains, riches, alms, mathematics, &c. construed ? — (7) Of what number is news ? — 
(8) Of what number is means considered ? — (9) What is the plural of cherub ? — Repeat 
the plural of each word in the table of Greek and Latin words. 

* Genii, when denoting atrial spirits ; Geniuses, when signifying persons of 
genius. 

t Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents ; Indices, when 
referring to algebraic quantities. 



Plural. 

Cherubim. 

Seraphim. 

Antitheses. 

Automata. 

Bases. 

Crises. 

Criteria. 

Diaereses. 

Ellipses. 

Emphases. 

Hypotheses. 

Metamorphoses. 

Phenomena. 

Appendices, or 

Appendixes. 



Singular. 

Datum, 

Effluvium, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 

Genius, 

Genus, 

Index, 

Lamina, 
Medium, 
Memoran- 
dum, 
Radius, 



Plural. 

Data. 

Effluvia. 

Encomia, or 

Encomiums. 

Errata. 

Genii.* 

Genera. 

Indices, or 

Indexes.f 

Laminse. 

Media. 

Memoranda, or 

Memorandums. 

Radii. 



68 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Arcanum, 
Axis, 

Calx, 



Arcana. 
Axes. 

Calces. 



Stamen, 
Stratum, 
Vortex, 



Stamina. 

Strata. 

Vortices. 



Some words, derived from the learned languages, are confined to the 
plural number; as, \ antipodes, credenda, literati, minutice. 

The following 2 nouns, being in Latin both singular and plural, are 
used in the same manner when adopted into our tongue :— hiatus, appa- 
ratus, series, species. 

Of Gender. 

By Gender, 3 in grammar, are meant the forms, or the variations in 
the forms, of nouns and pronouns, which distinguish objects in regard 
to sex. 4 There are three genders. 

The 3 Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male kind ; as, a man, 
a horse, a buck* 

The Feminine Gender denotes animals of the female kind; as, a 
woman, a duck, a hen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither male nor fe- 
male ; as, afield, a house, a garden. 

Some 6 nouns, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted 
into the masculine or the feminine gender ; as when we say of the sun, 
" He is setting;" and of a ship, "She sails well." 

In the 7 £nglish language there are three methods of distinguishing the 



sexes, viz. 










1. By different words ; as, 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Boar, 


Sow. 


King, 


Queen. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Buck, 


Doe. 


Man, 


Woman 




2. By a difference 


of termination ; as, 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Administrator, 


Administratrix. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Adulterer, 


Adulteress. 


Mayor, 


Mayoress. 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Bridegroom, 


Bride. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 








Ques 


tions. 





(1) Of what number are antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiae, considered? — 
(2) How are hiatus, apparatus, series, and species, used 1 — (3) What is gender ?— 
(4) How many genders are there? — (5) Give the definition of each? — (6) Are nouns 
naturally neuter made of the masculine or feminine gender ? — (7) How many methods 
are there, in English, to distinguish the sexes ? — Give examples of each. 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective's being prefixed to the noun ; as, 

A cock-sparrow, A hen-sparrow. 

A man-servant, A maid-servant. 

A he-goat, A she-goat. 

A he-bear, A she-bear. 

A male child, A female child. 

Male descendants, Female descendants. 

The words ' parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, servant, and several 
Others, are used indifferently for males or females.* 

Of Case. 

By Case, 2 in grammar, is meant the condition or the situation of 
nouns and pronouns, in relation to other words in a sentence. 

In English, 3 nouns have three cases — the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective. 

The Nominative 4 Case expresses the doer of an action, or the subject 
of a verb ; as, " The boy plays ; " "I am here ; " "He was injured." 

The Possessive Case expresses the relation of property, ownership, or 
possession, and has an apostrophe, and, generallv, the letter s, after it; 
as, "The scholar's duty ;" " My father's house." "(Seepage 27.) 

When 5 the plural ends in s, the last s is generally omitted, but the 
apostrophe is retained ; as, " On eagles' wings ; " " The drapers' com- 
pany." 

Sometimes, 6 also, when the singular terminates in ss, the ap.^s- 
trophic s is not added; as, "For goodness' sake ; " "For righteousness' 
sake." 

The 7 Objective Case expresses the object of an action, or of a relation, 
and generally follows a verb transitive, a participle, or a preposition ; as, 
"John assists Charles;" "They live in London." 

Nouns 8 are declined in the following manner :— 

Singular* PluraL 

Nominative case, A mother, Mothers, 

Possessive case, A mother's, Mothers', 

Objective case, A mother ; Mothers. 

Nominative case, The man, The men, 

Possessive case, The man's, The men's, 

Objective case, The man ; The men. 

Questions, 

(1) How are the nouns parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, and servant, used ? 
— (2) What is case ?— ^(3) How many cases are there? — (4) Give a definition of the 
nominative and possessive. — (5) How is the possessive case formed, when the nomina- 
tive ends in s ?— (6) How is it formed when the noun ends in 55 ? — (7) What does the 
objective case express ? — (8) How are nouns declined 1 

* To such nouns, some grammarians have applied the term common gender. 
For remarks on this subject, see Appendix. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 



OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective l is a word added to a noun, or to a pronoun, to express 
some quality of, or circumstance respecting, the person or the thing for 
which the noun or the pronoun stands; as, "An industrious man ;" " A 
virtuous woman ; " " He is good" 

In English, 2 the adjective is not varied on account of gender, number, 
or case. Thus we say, "A careless boy ; careless girls." 

The only variation 3 which it admits is that of the degrees of com- 
parison. 

There are 4 commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison — the 
'positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The Positive State, '° generally, expresses the quality of an object, 
without any increase or diminution ; as, good, wise, great 

The Comparative Degree 6 increases or lessens the positive in signifi- 
cation ; as, wiser, greater, less ivise. 

The Superlative Degree 7 increases or lessens the positive to the high- 
est or the lowest degree ; as, wisest, greatest, least wise. 

The simple word, 8 or positive, becomes the comparative by adding r 
or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the end of it ; as, wise, 
iviser, ivisest ; great, greater, greatest. And the adverbs more and most, 
placed before the adjective, have the same effect ; as, wise, more wise, 
most ivise. 

To diminish the signification of adjectives in the positive state, the 
termination 9 i*s/i is frequently added to them; as, black, blackish, or tend- 
ing to blackness ; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt. 

The word rather 10 is very properly used to express a small degree or 
excess of a quality; as, "She is rather profuse in her expenses." 

Monosyllables, n for the most part, are compared by er and est ; and 
dissyllables by more and most ; as, mild, milder, mildest ; frugal, more fru- 
gal, most frugal. Dissyllables ending in y; as, happy, lovely; and in It 
after a mute ; as, able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, 
polite ; easily admit of er and est ; as, happier, happiest ; abler, ablest ; 
politer, politest. Words of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of 
those terminations. 

The superlative of some words 12 is formed by adding the adverb most 
to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, up- 
permost, foremost. 

In English, as in most languages, there are some words in veiy com- 
mon use (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of anal- 
ogy), that are irregular in this respect; as, 13 good, better, best; bad, 
worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much or many, more, most ; near, nearer, 

Questions. 

(1) What is an adjective? — (2) Are adjectives varied on account of person , num- 
ber, &c. ? — (3) What variations have they ?-— (4) How many degrees of comparison 
are there? — (o) What does the positive state express? — (6) Does the comparative de- 
gree increase or lessen the positive in signification ? — (7) What degree of comparison 
increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree ?— (8) How does the 
simple word, or positive, become the comparative ?-— (9) What effect does the termina- 
tion ish have? — (10) How is the word rathe?- used? — (11) How are monosyllables 
compared ? — (12) What words are compared by adding the adverb most to the end of 
them ? — (13) Compare the adjectives good, bad, little, much, near, late, and old. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest ; 
and a few others. 

An adjective ' used without a noun, with the definite article before it, 
becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and is written as a noun ; as, 
" Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." 

Various nouns, 2 placed before other nouns, assume the nature of adjec- 
tives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c. 

Numeral adjectives 3 are either cardinal or ordinal ; — cardinal, as, one, 
two, three, &c. ; ordinal, as,Jirst, second, third, &c. 



OF ARTICLES. 

An Article 4 is a word prefixed to nouns and pronouns, to limit their 
signification. 

[Articles are so called from the Latin word articulus, signifying a joint, or 
very small part.] 

In English 5 there are but two articles, an and the : an becomes a when 
the following word begins with a consonant sound; as, a hand, a heart, a 
highway. But when the following word begins with a vowel sound, an 
is used ; as, an acorn, an hour. [See Appendix, p. 128.] 

An or a 6 is styled the Indefinite Article : it is generally used in a vague 
sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects inde- 
terminate ; as, " Give me a book ; " " Bring me an apple." 

The 7 is called the Definite Article, because it generally ascertains what 
particular thing or things are meant ; as, " Give me the book ; " " Bring 
me the apples;" meaning some book, or apples, referred to. 

A noun, without any article to limit it, is generally taken in its 
widest sense ; as, "A candid temper is proper for man ;" that is, for all 
mankind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be seen in the 
following examples : "The son of a king — the son of the king — a son 
of the king." Each of these three phrases has an entirely different 
meaning, through the different applications of the articles a and the. 

The article 8 is omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, 
vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, "Prudence 
is commendable ;" "Falsehood is odious ;" "Anger ought to be avoided," 
&c. It is not prefixed to a proper name, as, Alexander (because that of 
itself denotes a determinate individual or particular thing), except for 
the sake of distinguishing a particular family ; as, "He is a Howard," 
or of the family of the Howards ; — or by way of eminence ; as, "Every 
man is not a Newton ;" " He has the courage q£an Achilles ; " — or when 
some noun is understood; as, "He sailed down the (river) Thames, in 
tlie (ship) Britannia." 

Questions* 

(1) How is an 'adjective, with a definite article before it, used? — (2) Do nouns 
become adjectives ? — (3) How are numeral adjectives divided 1 — (4) What is an Arti- 
cle? — (5) How many articles are there? — (6) Which is styled the indefinite article ? 
— (7) Which is called the definite article ? — (8) Before what class of nouns are the 
articles omitted? 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

The indefinite l article is usually joined to nouns of the singular num- 
ber only : 2 the definite article may be joined to nouns of both numbers. 

The adjectives 3 few and many, however (when the latter has the word 

freat before it), though joined with plural nouns, are frequently preceded 
y the indefinite article a ; as, "a few men ; " " a great many men." 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the article has in 
these phrases : it means a small or a great number collectively taken, and 
therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity. Thus, likewise, a 
dozen, a score, a hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, an aggre- 
gate of many collectively taken, and therefore still retains the article a, 
though joined as an adjective to a plural substantive; as, "a hundred 
years," &c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective many 
and a singular noun ; as, 

" Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 

The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear ; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

In these lines, the phrases many a gem, and many a flower, refer to many 
gems and many flowers, separately, not collectively, considered. 

The definite 4 article the is frequently applied to adverbs of the com- 
parative, as well as the superlative, degree ; and its 5 effect is, to mark 
the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely ; as, 
"TAemore I examine it, the better I like it; " "I like this the least of any." 



OF VERBS. 

A Verb 6 is a word which (when connected with a subject or nom- 
inative) signifies assertion, action, being, or suffering. 

{Verb is derived from the Latin word verbum, which signifies toord.] 

Questions. 

(1) How is the indefinite article used? — (2) How is the definite used? — (3) Is the 
indefinite article ever followed by a plural noun ? — (4) Is the definite article ever applied 
to adverbs ?— (5) What is its effect ?— (6) What is a Verb ? 

1. According to our definition of the noun, we give names to immaterial and imagina- 
ry, as well as to material things, considering them capable of producing effects, and of 
becoming the objects both of actions and of relations. We likewise speak of relative 
and imaginary, as well as of real or physical actions ; as, "The sun rises in the east, 
rolls over our heads, and gradually sinks to rest behind the western hills ; " " The 
morning stars sang together ;* "The diamond sparkles in its bed;" "The landscape 
recedes from our view 5 " " We see the shades of night approaching" 

2. The essence of a transitive verb consists in its requiring for its object, a noun, a 
pronoun of the objective form, or a substantive phrase. It is therefore immaterial (so 
far as its government is concerned) whether the action which it expresses is real, rela- 
tive, or imaginary j as will be seen by the following examples : — " Washington conquered 
his enemies/ 7 (them.) " They lost many battles," (them.) " The youth resembles his 
sister," (her.) "The tree puts forth its leaves," (them.) "The moon withheld her 
borrowed beams," (them.) " The planter owns a slave (him) whom he inherited." 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

Verbs l are divided into three sorts, namely, active, neuter, and passive* 

Active Verbs are subdivided into transitive and intransitive, 

[Transitive is derived from the Latin word transitivus, which signifies to pass 
over and affect.] 

A Transitive Verb 2 expresses an action (real or imaginary) which 
affects an object; as, "The teacher instructs his pupils;" "The boy re- 
sembles his parents." 

An Intransitive Verb 3 expresses an action (real, relative, or imaginary) 
confined to the actor ; as, " The bird flies swiftly ; " " The sun rolls over 
our heads daily." 

A Neuter Verb 4 expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a 
state of being. 

A Passive Verb 5 expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving of 
an action. (See pages 46—9.) 

Many verbs 6 are used both in a transitive and in an intransitive sense, 
the construction determining of which kind they are ; as, to flatten, sig- 
nifying to make even or level, is a transitive verb ; but, when it signifies 
to grow dull or insipid, it is an intransitive verb. 

An intransitive verb, 7 by the addition of a preposition, may become a 
compound transitive verb. To smile is an intransitive verb, but to smile on 
is a compound transitive verb : therefore we properly say, "He was smiled 
on by fortune ; " " She smiled on him." 

Auxiliary 8 or helping verbs are those by the help of which the principal 
verbs are conjugated. They are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, &c, 
with their variations ; and must, which has no variation. 



Of Mode. 

Mode 9 is a particular form of the verb (when connected with its 
subject), showing the manner in which the being, action, or passion, is 
represented.* 

There 10 are five modes of verbs, namely, the indicative, the subjunctive, 
the potential, the infinitive, and the imperative. 

The Indicative Mode n simply indicates or declares an action or event; 
as, " He loves ; " " He is loved ; " — or it asks a question ; as, " Does he 
love?" "Is he loved?" 

The Subjunctive Mode 12 represents an action or event under a condi- 
tion, motive, wish, or supposition. A verb in this mode is, generally, 
preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by 
another verb; as, "He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 

Questions. 

(1) Into how many sorts are verbs divided ? — (2) What does a transitive verb express ? 
—(3) What does an intransitive verb express ? — (4) What does a neuter verb express ?— 
(5) What does a passive verb express ?— (6) Is the same verb ever used both in a transi- 
tive and an intransitive sense ? — (7) Does an intransitive verb ever become transitive ? 
—(8) What are auxiliary verbs? — (9) What is mode? — (10) How many modes are 
there? — (11) How does the indicative mode represent an aotion or event? — (12) What 
does the subjunctive mode represent ? 

* The several modes and tenses, though said to belong to verbs, are, in fact, 
generally modifications of sentences. For further remarks on this subject, see 
Appendix. 

7 



74 ETYiMOLOGY. 

The Potential Mode * implies possibility, liberty, power, will, or obliga- 
tion ; as, " It may rain ; " " He may go or stay ; " "I can ride ; " " He 
would walk ; " " They should learn." 

The Infinitive Mode 2 expresses an action or event in a general and 
unlimited manner ; as, " to act," " to speak," " to be feared." 

The Imperative Mode 3 is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, 
or permitting; as, "Depart thou;" "Mind ye;" "Go in peace." [For 
observations on the nature and use of this mode, see Appendix.} 



Of the Tenses. 

Tense, 4 being the means used to divide time, might seem to admit 
of but three distinctions, viz. the present, the past, and the future ; but, 
to mark it more accurately, it is made to consist 5 of six, viz. the present 
tense, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future and 
the second. 

The Present Tense 6 represents an action or event as passing at the 
time in which it is mentioned ; as, " I rule ; " "I am ruled ; " "I think ; " 
"I fear." 

The Imperfect Tense 7 represents an action or event either as past 
and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past; as, 
" I loved her for her modesty and virtue ;" " They were travelling post 
when he met them." 

Questions. 

(1) What does the potential mode imply ? — (2) What does the infinitive mode express ? 
— (3) What is the imperative mode used for ? — (4) What is tense ? — (5) How many dis- 
tinctions of tense are there 1 — (6) What does the present tense represent ? — (7) What 
does the imperfect tense represent 1 

The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. at present existing ; 
as, " He is an able man;" "She is an amiable woman." It is also used in speaking 
of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time ; as, " He fre- 
quently rides 3 " " He walks out every morning ; " " He goes into the country every 
summer." We sometimes apply this tense even to persons long since dead ; as, 
" Seneca reasons and moralizes well 3 " " Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words when, before, after, as soon as, &c, is 
sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action 3 as, " When he arrives, 
he will hear the news ; " u He will hear the news before he arrives, or as soon as he 
arrives, or, at farthest, soon after he arrives 3 " " The more she improves, the more 
amiable she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes substituted for the imperfect 
tense; as, "He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabitants; he fights and con- 
quers, takes an immense booty, which he divides among his soldiers, and returns home 
to enjoy an empty triumph." 

Both the imperfect tense and the perfect denote an action or event that is past ; but 
the latter denotes it in such a manner, that there is actually remaining some part of the 
time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect 
denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of the portion 
of time in which it was done. If we speak of the present century, we say, " Philoso- 
phers have made great discoveries in the present century ; " but if we speak of the last 
century, we say ; " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century." 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

The Perfect Tense ? not only refers to what is past, but also conveys 
an allusion to the present time ; as, " I have finished my letter ; " " I have 
seen the person that was recommended to me." 

The Pluperfect Tense 2 represents an action or event not only as past, 
but also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence ; 
as, " I had finished my letter before he arrived." 

The First Future Tense 3 represents an action or an event as yet to 
take place, either with or without respect to the precise time ; as, " The 
sun will rise to-morrow ; " "I shall see them again." 

The Second Future 4 intimates that the action will be fully accom- 
plished at, or before, the time of another future action or event ; as, 
" I shall have dined at one o'clock ; " " The two houses will have finished 
their business when they adjourn." m 



Of Conjugation. 

Conjugation, 5 in grammar, is the varying of verbs by uniting them 
with the personal pronouns, and with each other, to show their different 
modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

The Indicative 6 Mode has six tenses, namely, the present, the imperfect, 
the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. 

Questions. 

(1) To what point of time does the perfect tense refer ? — (2) What does the pluperfect 
tense represent ?— (3) What does the first future tense represent ? — (4) What does the 
second future tense intimate 1 — (5) What is conjugation ? — (6) How many tenses has the 
indicative mode ? 

In treating of the tenses, there are two things to which attention ought principally to 
be turned — the relation which the several tenses have to one another in regard to time, 
and the notice which they give of an action's being completed or not completed. 

The present tense, the past and the future tenses, may be used either definitely or 
indefinitely, both with respect to time and action. When they denote customs or habits, 
and not individual acts, they are applied indefinitely ; as, " Virtue promotes happiness ; " 
H The old Romans governed by benefits more than by fear;" " I shall hereafter employ 
my time more usefully." In these examples, the words promotes, governed, and shall 
employ, are used indefinitely, both in regard to action and time ; for they are not con- 
fined to individual actions, nor to any precise points of present, past, or future time. 
When they are applied to signify particular actions, and to ascertain the precise points 
of time to which they are confined, they are used definitely, as in the following 
instances : — " My brother is writing." " He built the house last summer, but he did 
not inhabit it till yesterday." " He will write another letter to-morrow." 

The different tenses also represent an action as complete or perfect, or as incomplete 
or imperfect. In lhe phrases, " I am writing," lt I was writing," " I shall be writing," 
imperfect, unfinished actions are signified. But the following examples, (< I wrote," 
" I have written," " I had written," " I shall have written," all denote complete, perfect 
action. 

It is recommended to the student to pay particular attention to the definitions of the 
modes; and especially to those of the subjunctive and potential ; as on his knowledge 
of these definitions will depend his ability readily to distinguish one from the other.. 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular* Plural. 

I have, We have, 

Thou hast, Ye or you have, 

He, she, or it, has or hath ; They have. 

IMPERFECT TENSE* 

Singular. Plural. 

I had, We had, 

Thou hadst, Ye or you had, 

He, &c. had ; m They had. 

The Perfect Tense 1 is formed by prefixing the sign have, or one of 
its variations, to the perfect participle of any verb ; thus, 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I have had, We have had, 

Thou hast had, Ye or you have had, 

He has had ;, They have had. 

The Pluperfect Tense 2 is formed by prefixing the sign, had, or its 
variation, to the perfect participle of any verb ; thus, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I had had, We had had, 

Thou hadst had, Ye or you had had, 

He had had ; They had had. 

The First Future Tense 3 is formed by prefixing the sign, shall or tmU y 
or its variation, to the present tense of any verb ; thus, 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall or will have, We shall or will have, 

Thou shalt or wilt have, • Ye or you shall or will have, 

He shall or will have ; They shall or will have. 

The Second Future Tense 4 is formed by prefixing the sign, shall 
have, or will have, or its variation, to the perfect participle of any 
verb ; thus, 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall have had, We shall have had, 

Thou wilt have had, Ye or you will have had, 

He will have had ; They will have had. 

Questions. 

(1) How is the perfect tense formed ? — (2) How is the pluperfect tense formed ? — 
(3) How is the first future tense formed? — -(4) How is the second future tense form- 
ed ?— Conjugate the verb have, in the indicative mode. 



ETYMOLOGY. - 77 

PARTICIPLES of the Verb HAVE. 

Present Participle, Having. 

Perfect Participle, Had. 

Compound Perfect, Having had. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

The Subjunctive Mode l has six tenses, namely, the present^ the imper- 
fect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second* 

Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE, 2 INDICATIVE FORM. 

Singular. Plural* 

If I have, If we have, 

If thou hast, If ye or you have, 

If he, she, or it, has or hath ; If they have. 

PRESENT TENSE, 3 ELLIPTICAL FORM. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I ( ) have,* If we ( ) have, 

If thou ( ) have, If ye or you ( ) have, 

If he ( ) have; If they ( ^havc 

The remaining tenses * of the subjunctive mode (of all verbs except 
the neuter verb be, which lias two forms in the imperfect tense, as well 
as in the present — see page 45) are in general similar to the corre- 
spondent tenses of the indicative mode, excepting that a conjunction, 
denoting a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c, is prefixed to 
the verb. 

[It will be proper for the teacher to require his pupils to repeat all the tenses 
of this mode with a conjunction prefixed to each of them. See pages 36 and 37.] 

Potential Mode. 

The Potential Mode 5 has four tenses, namely, the present* the imper- 
fect, the perfect, and the pluperfect*. 

Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

The Present Tense 6 is formed by prefixing the sign, may or can, or 
its variation, to the present tense of the indicative ; as, 

Questions* 

(1) How many Tenses has the subjunctive mode ?"— (2) Give the conjugation of the 
present tense, indicative form. — (3) Give the elliptical form. — (4) How are the remain- 
ing tenses conjugated ?— (5) How many tenses has the potential mode? — (6) How is 
the present tense formed ? 

* This form of the subjunctive mode has should, or some other auxiliary* 
understood before the verb t as. M If I should have." 

7* 



7& ETYMOLOGT.. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural.. 

I may or can have, We may or can have, 

Thou mayst or canst have, Ye or you may or can have* 

He may or can have ; They may or can have. 

The Imperfect Tense 1 is formed by prefixing the sign, might, could, 
would, or should, or its variation, to the present tense of the indicative ; as, 

IMPERFECT TENSE.. 

Singular. . Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would or should 

have, have,. 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or 

shouldst have, should have, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or 

have ; should have. 

The Perfect Tense 2 is formed Iff prefixing the sign, may have, or can 
have, or its variation, to the perfect participle ; as, 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural,- 

I may or can have had, We may or can have had, 

Thou mayst or canst have had, Ye or you may or can have had", 

He may or can have had ; They may or can have had. 

The Pluperfect Tense 3 is formed by prefixing the sign, might have, 
could have, would have, or should have, or its variation, to the perfect 
participle; as, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should 

have had, have had, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or 

shouldst have had, should have had, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or 

have had ; should have had. 

Infinitive Mode. 

The Infinitive Mode 4 has but two tenses, namely, the present and the 
perfect. The Present Tense 5 is formed by prefixing to, which is called 
the sign of the infinitive mode, to the present tense of the indicative; as, 
"to go," "to run," " to strike," &c. 

The Perfect Tense 6 is formed by prefixing to have to the perfect par- 
ticiple ; as, " to have gone," " to have run," "to have beaten." 

Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To have ; To have had. 

Questions* 

^ r is the imperfect tense formed ? — (2) How is the perfect formed ?— (3) How 
r ect formed 1 — Conjugate the verb have, through all the tenses. — (4) How 
as the infinitive mode? — (5) How is the present formed ?-— (6) How is^ 
^d ? — Give the conjugation of the verb have in the infinitive mode. 



ETYMOLOGY* 79 

A verb * in the infinitive mode has no nominative case, and, there- 
fore, it is unlimited in respect to person and number. Hence it is 
called the infinitive or unlimited mode. In all the other modes, the 
verb is attended by a nominative case, by which it is limited as to person 
and number. 

Imperative Mode- 

The Imperative Mode 2 has but one tense, and one person ; nametyy 
the present tense and the second person. 

This form 3 of the verb is generally used for commanding; as, "De- 
part thou ; " and is, therefore, in the imperative mode ; but it is also 
used for exhorting, entreating, and permitting; as, "Mind ye \" "Let us 
stay ; " " Go in peace." 

Conjugation of the Verb HAVE. 
IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TEJNSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Have thou, or do thou have ; Have ye or you, or do ye or you have. 

Of Auxiliary and Defective Verbs. 

A Defective Verb 4 is a verb which wants some of the principal parts* 
The principal of them are these — 5 may, can, shall, will, must, ought r 
quoth, and their variations. 

[For the variations of these words on account of tense, &c, seepage 33.] 

That the verbs must and ought may be connected with other verbs hav- 
ing a past, as well as with those having a present, signification, appeal's 
from the following sentences: — "I must own that I am to blame;" "He 
must have been mistaken ; " " Speaking things which they ought not ; " 
" These ought ye to have done." 

The verbs 6 have,be, will, and do, when they are unconnected with a 
principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal 
verbs ; as, " We have enough ; " "I am grateful ; " " He wills it to be so ; " 

Questions. 

(1) Why is this mode called the infinitive mode? — (2) How many tenses has the 
imperative mode ? — (3) What is the imperative mode used for ? — Give the conjugation 
of the imperative mode. — (4) Why are defective verbs so called ? — (5) Repeat the 
principal of them. — (6) Are the verbs have, be, will, and do, always used as auxiliaries ?. 

It appears to be proper, for the information of learners, to make a few observations 
in this place on some of the tenses, &c. The first is, that, in using the potential mode, 
some grammarians confound the present with the imperfect tense, and the perfect with 
the pluperfect. Although the definitions of the past tenses of the indicative mode do not, 
in all cases, apply to those of the potential, yet each of the latter has its appropriate use. 
The precise time referred to depends very much on the words with which the verb is 
connected ; the auxiliaries might, could, icould, and should, being frequently made to 
refer to present and to future time. 

It may be further remarked, that the imperfect tense {second, or elliptical form) of the 
subjunctive mode, as well as the imperfect of the potential, may be so connected with 
other words, as to refer to time present, past, and future. The precise time expressed 
by the tenses of the infinitive mode, also, depends very much on the connection in 
which they stand. In fact, when we speak of the mode of a verb, we generally refer to 
the influence of words connected with .such verb. Especially is this the case with verbs 
in the subjunctive mode ; as a conjunction, expressed or implied, before the verb, is 
generally required to form that mode. 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

"They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries ; 
as, " I shall have enough ; " " I will he grateful." 

The auxiliary and defective verbs seem not to be included in the com 
mon definition of the verb. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the follow- 
ing explanation of them : — 

Ought I denotes duty ; as, " He ought to be here." 

Have 2 denotes possession ; as, " Children, have ye any meat ?" — Have 
also denotes time ; as, " We have performed our duty." 

May 3 implies liberty; as, "He may return if he desires it." — May also 
implies doubt ; as, " He may not be here, although I expect him." 

Can 4 implies power or ability ; as, " He can pass the guards." 

Must 5 denotes necessity or compulsion ; as, " He must pay the debt." 

Might 6 implies liberty ; as, " He might have passed the guards, had he 
been so disposed*" — Might also implies power ; as, " He might have re- 
turned in spite of his keepers." 

Could 7 signifies power or ability ; as, " He could have paid the 
demand." 

Would 8 implies determination ; as, "He would go in;" — also inclina- 
tion ; as, " I ivould that all would come to the knowledge of the truth." 

Should 9 denotes duty ; as, " You should treat your superiors with 
deference." 

Shall, I0 in the first person, only foretells ; as, " I shall go to-morrow." — 
In the second and third persons, shall promises, commands, or threatens ; 
as, " You or they shall be rewarded ; " " Thou shalt not steal." 

Will, u in the first person, denotes promise ; as, " I will not let thee 
go:" — in the second and third persons, it foretells; as, "He will reward 
the righteous." 

Of Regular and Irregular Verbs. 

A verb 12 is called regular, if its imperfect tense and its perfect participle 
are formed by adding to its present tense ed, or d only when the verb 
ends in e ; as, 

PRESENT TENSE. 13 IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

I destroy, I destroyed, Destroyed. 

I love, I loved, Loved. 

A verb, u the imperfect tense and perfect participle of which are not thus 
formed, is called irregular. 

Irregular Verbs are of various Sorts. 

1. Such 15 as have the same form in the present tense, the imperfect, 
and the perfect participle ; as r 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Cost, Cost, Cost 

Questions. 

(1) What does ought denote ?— (2) What does have denote ?~ (3) What does may 
imply ? — (4) What does can imply ? — (5) What does must denote f— (€) What does 
might imply ?— (7) What does could signify ? — (8) What does would imply ?— -(9) 
What does should denote ?—( 10) What does shall imply? — (ll)r> What does will de- 
note?--^ 12) What verbs are called regular ?~( 13) Give an< example of the regular 
Yerb in the present, imperfect, &c. — (14) What verbs are called irregular ?•—( 15^, 
Give aa example of the several sorts of irregular verbs*. 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

2. Such as have the same form in the imperfect tense and the perfect 
participle; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Sell, Sold, Sold. 

3. Such as have different forms in the imperfect tense and the perfect 
participle; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Blow, Blew, Blown. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction; as, feed, fed ; leave, 
left; — others by the termination en; as, fall, fell, fallen ; — others by the 
termination ght ; as, buy, bought ; teach, taught, &c. 

[For a list of the irregular verbs, see page 32.] 

The compiler has not inserted, in the list of irregular verbs referred to, 
such verbs as are irregular in familiar writing only, or in discourse, and 
which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed; as, learnt, spelt, 
spilt, &c. These should be avoided in every sort of composition. It is, 
however, proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into t are un- 
exceptionable, and that others are the only established forms of ex- 
pression ; as, crept, guilt, &c. ; and lost, felt, slept, &c. These allowable 
and necessary contractions must therefore be carefully distinguished, by 
the learner, from those that are exceptionable. The words which are 
obsolete have also been omitted, that the learner might not be induced 
to mistake them for words in present use : such are urreathen, drunken, 
holpen, molten, gotten, bounden, &c. ; and swang, wrang, slank, strawea\ 
gat, brake, ware, &c. 

Op Neuter and Passive Verbs. 

A Neuter Verb * implies being or existence, or a state of existence 
without action ; as, " I am in health ; " " He is weary of his life ; " " They 
are in town." 

[The neuter verb 2 Be, or Am, is more used than any other verb in the 
language ; and it is more irregular in its parts than any other. For these 
reasons the pupil should make himself thoroughly acquainted with its 
various forms, as exhibited in the tables of Conjugation, on pages 44, 45, 
46, 47, and 48.1 

A Passive Verb 3 is a verb that represents its subject or nominative as 
being for having been) acted upon; as, "I am persecuted by my ene- 
mies , "He has been injured by slanderers." In its original application, 
passion signifies a suffering (enduring). The crucifixion of our Savior 
is for this reason called his Passion, that is, his suffering on the cross. 
From passion is derived passive. Hence the name of the class of verbs 
so denominated. The meaning and use of the word have, however, been 
greatly extended. 

Questions. 

(1) What does a neuter verb imply ? — (2) Is the same verb used both in an active 
and a neuter sense ? — (3) What does a passive verb represent ? 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

The passive verb l is formed by prefixing the neuter verb be (or am) or 
one of its variations (is, art, are, was, wast, were, wert, or been) to the per- 
fect participle of a transitive verb ; as, " I am loved ; " " He is beaten ; " 
" The coach is drawn? 

In the following sentences, a part of the neuter verb be is prefixed to 
the perfect participle of an intransitive verb: — "The ship is arrived." 
"The bird is flown" Such verbs 2 are intransitive verbs, in the passive 
form. Some writers on grammar reject this form of expression as incor- 
rect, and write in its stead, " The bird has flown," &c. — (See conjugation 
of the neuter and passive verbs, pages 44, 45, 46, and 47.) 



OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle 3 is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of 
a verb and of an adjective. 

Participles 4 often become adjectives, and are placed before nouns 
to denote quality; as, "a lying tongue;" "a burning fever;" "a lov- 
ing child;" "a moving spectacle;" "a heated imagination;" "a 
learned man." The words mark simply the qualities referred to, 
without any regard to time, and may properly be called participial 
adjectives. 

When 5 preceded by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun in 
the possessive case, participles become nouns; as. "the beginning :" "a 
good understanding ; " " The chancellor's being attached to the king se- 
cured his crown." 

There are 6 three sorts of participles, namely, the present or active, the 
perfect or passive, and the compound perfect ; as, loving, loved,* having 
loved. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time, but they also signify 
actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner 
as verbs do. 

OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs 7 are words which are used to qualify the meaning of verbs, 
participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. They are of various kinds, 
indicating manner, time, place, degree, order, quantity, negation, &c. 
[See the list of Adverbs, page 83.] 

[Adverbs are more frequently added to verbs than to any other part 
of speech, and therefore they are called adverbs.] 

Some 8 adverbs are compared thus — soon, sooner, soonest; often, 
oftener, oftenest. Those ending in ly are compared by more and most; 
as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 

Questions. 

(1) How is a passive verb formed ? — (2) What kind of verbs are isjlown, is arrived, 
&c.?-—(3) What is a Participle? — (4) Do participles become adjectives? — (5) Do 
participles ever become nouns ? — (6) How many sorts of participles are there ? — (7) 
What is an Adverb ? — (8) How are adverbs compared ? 

* When this participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called perfect ; when 
it is joined to the verb to be, or understood with it, it is denominated passive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

Adverbs seem l originally to have been contrived to express compen- 
diously, in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more ; 
as, " He acted wisely," for " He acted with wisdom ; " " prudently," for 
u with prudence ; " " He did it here," for " He did it in this place." 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to the following 
classes, namely, 

Of Manner — Prudently, honestly, wisely, well, ill, &c. 
Time, preset J — Now, to-day, &c. 
Time past — Before, already, lately, long ago, &c. 
Time future — Presently, immediately, to-morrow, &c. 
Time indefinite — Sometimes, seldom, always, &c. 
In a place — Here, there, where, &c. 
To a place — Hither, thither, whither, &c. 
Towards a place — Hither ward, thitherward. 
From a place — Hence, thence, whence. 
Repetition of times definitely — Once, twice, thrice, again, &c. 
Repetition of times indefinitely — Often, seldom, frequently. 
Order — First, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
Quantity — Sufficiently, enough, &c. 
Negation — Nay, no, not, &c. 
Separation — Apart, separately, asunder, &c. 
Conjunction — Together, generally, universally, &>c. 
Interrogation — Why, when, how, &c. 
Defect — Almost, nearly, &c. 
Preference — Rather, chiefly, especially, &c. 
Abatement — Scarcely, hardly, &c. 
Contingence — Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, &c. 
Certainty or affirmation — Verily, truly, yea, yes, certainly. 
Comparison — More, most, less, worse, &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which are 
formed by a combination of several of the prepositions with the adverbs 
of place, here, there, and where ; as, 2 hereof thereof whereof; hereto, 
thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, where- 
with; herein, therein, wherein; therefore (i. e. there-for), wherefore, 
(i. e. where-for) ; hereupon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or 
whereon, &c. Except therefore, these are seldom used. 

It may be particularly observed, with respect to the word therefore, 
that it is an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only gives the 
sense of for that reason. When it gives that sense, and also connects, it 
is a conjunction ; as, " He is good, therefore he is happy." 

There are 3 also some adverbs which are composed of nouns, and the 
letter a used instead of at, on, &c. ; as, aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, 
aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, &c. 

The words 4 when and where, and all others of the same nature, such 
as whence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c, may be properly called ad- 

Questions. 

(1) For what purpose were adverbs contrived? — Give an example of each kind 
of adverbs. — (2) Give examples of adverbs formed by a combination of adverbs of 
place and prepositions. — (3) Are adverbs composed of nouns ? — (4) What words are 
called adverbial conjunctions ? 

When the words consequently, accordingly, &,c, are subjoined to and, or joined to 
if j since, &c, they are adverbs, the connection being made without their help; when 
they appear single, and unsupported by any other connective, they may be called 
conjunctions. 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

verbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs 
and conjunctions : — of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences ; — of ad- 
verbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or of place. 

There are several combinations of short words which are used adver- 
bially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing; as, "not 
at all," " a little while ago," " to and fro," " in vain," &c. 

Of Adverbs of Degree. 

* The words 1 very, quite, exceedingly, extremely, excessively, too, much, 
&c, are denominated Adverbs (or Ad-words) of Degree. These words 
2 are prefixed to adverbs of manner, time, &c. ; as, " He rides too fast ; " 
"The stage will arrive very soon;" and to other adverbs of degree; 
as, "He rides much too fast." They are also prefixed to adjectives; 
as, "The weather is very warm;" "The house is too large," &c. (See 
page 21.) 

OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun 3 is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid too frequent 
a repetition of it ; as, " The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is 
useful." 

[Pronoun comes from the Latin word pro-nomen, compounded of pro, for, 
and nomen, a noun or name.] 

Pronouns have the same properties as nouns, viz. person, number, 
gender, and case. 

There are 4 four kinds of pronouns, viz. the personal, the relative, the 
interrogative, and the adjective. 

Of Personal Pronouns. 

A Personal Pronoun is a kind of pronoun that shows by its form of 
what person it is. 

There are 5 five personal pronouns, viz. I, thou, he, she, and it ; with 
their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 

Persona] pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and 
theplural. 

The personal pronouns of the first person and the second are equally 
applicable to both sexes ; and they should be considered masculine or 
feminine according to the known intention of the writer. The person 
speaking, and the person spoken to, being present to each other, are 
supposed to know the sex to which they respectively belong ; but, as the 
person (or the thing) spoken of may be absent, it is necessary that the word 
representing him or it should be marked by a distinction of gender ; at 

Questions* 

(1) What words are denominated adverbs of degree ? — (2) To what parts of 
speech are adverbs of degree prefixed ? — (3) What is a Pronoun ? — (4) How many 
kinds of pronouns are there ? — Name them. — (5) How man}' personal pronouns are 
there ? — Name them. 

* The words very, quite, exceedingly, excessively, extremely, to, and some other 
W6rds, are called, by some grammarians, helping (or secondary) adjectives, 
when they modify adjectives : when they modify adverbs, they are called 
helping (or secondary) adverbs. — Blair. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

least, when some particular person or thing is spoken of, that ought to 
be more distinctly marked ; accordingly the pronoun singular of the third 
person has the three genders, he, she, U. 

Pronouns * have three cases — the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form different from 
that of the nominative, or the possessive case, 



A Table of the Personal Pronouns in the Three Cases. 

Singular Number. 

1st person. 2d person. 3d per. mas. 3d per. fern. Sdper.neut. 

jYom. I, 2 Thou, He, She, It, 

Poss. Mine, Thine, His, HerS, Its, 

Obj. Me; Thee; Him; Her; It. 

Plural Number. 

Norn. We, Ye or You, They, They, They, 

Poss. Ours, Yours, Theirs, Theirs, Theirs, 

Obj. Us. You, Them. Them. Them. 

Of the Relative Pronouns, 

Relative Pronouns 3 are such as in general, relate to some word or 
phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent : they are, who, 
which, and that ; as, " The man is happy who lives virtuously."* 

What 4 is a kind of compound pronoun, including both the antecedent 
and the relative, and is equivalent to that and which ; as, " He praises what 
you dispraise ; " that is, " He praises that which you dispraise. 

Who 5 is applied to persons, which to animals and inanimate things ; as, 
" He is a friend who is faithful in adversity ; " " The bird which sung so 
sweetly is flown ; " " This is the tree which produces no fruit." 

That, 6 as a relative, is often used to prevent too frequent a repeti- 
tion of who and which. It is applied to both persons and things; as, 
" He that acts wisely deserves praise ; " " Modesty is a quality that highly 
adorns a woman." 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined :— - 



Singular and Plural. 

Nominative, 7 

Possessive, 

Objective, 


Who, 

Whose, 

Whom. 


Questions. 





(1) How many cases have pronouns ?-— (2) Repeat the table of personal pronouns. 
—•(3) What are relative pronouns ? — (4) What is what equivalent to ? — (5) How is 
who applied ?— *(6) For what is that used ? — (7) Decline the relative who. 

* Some grammarians teach, that when who, which, or what, is used interrog- 
atively, it relates to some word in the expected answer, which they call its 
subsequent. This distinction is thought by many to be both unnecessary and 
unsound. [See Appendix.] 

8 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

JVhich, what, and th*,t, are likewise of both numbers; but they do 
not vary their terminations. Whose, however, is sometimes used as the 
possessive case of which ; as, " Is there any other doctrine whose follow- 
ers are punished?" 

Who, which, and what, have sometimes the words soever and ever an- 
nexed to them; as, whosoever or whoever, whichsoever or ivhichever, what- 
soever or whatever ; but they are seldom used in modern style. 

The word l that is sometimes a relative pronoun, sometimes a demon- 
strative adjective pronoun, sometimes a demonstrative pronoun, and 
sometimes a conjunction. 2 It is a relative when it may be changed into 
who or which without destroying the sense ; as, " They that (who) reprove 
us maybe our best friends ; " "From every thing that (which) you see, 
derive instruction." 3 It is a demonstrative adjective pronoun when it is 
followed immediately by a noun, to which it is either joined or refers, 
and which it limits or qualifies ; as, " That boy is industrious ; " " That 
belongs to me," meaning that book, that desk, &c. ; — and a demonstra- 
tive pronoun when it stands for a noun. 4 It is a conjunction when it joins 
sentences, and cannot be turned into who or which without destroying 
the sense ; as, " Take care that every day be well employed ; " "I hope 
he will believe that I have not acted improperly." 

Who, which, and what, 5 are called interrogative pronouns, when they 
are used in asking questions; as, " Who is he?" " Which is the book?" 
"What art thou doing?" 

Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns 6 are of a mixed nature, partaking of the proper- 
ties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns 7 may be subdivided into five sorts, namely, 
the possessive, the distributive, the demonstrative, the indefinite, and the 
interrogative. 

The Possessive Pronouns 8 are those which relate to possession of prop- 
erty. There are seven of them, viz. my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns : — " My 
lesson is finished." " Thy books are defaced." " He loves his studies." 
" She performs her duty." " We own our faults." " Your situation is 
distressing." " I admire their virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive case of the personal 
pronouns : — " This desk is mine ; the other is thine." " These trinkets 
are Ms; those are hers." "This house is ours, and that is yours." 
" Theirs is very commodious." 

Self and its plural, selves, are added to possessive pronouns; as, myself, 
yourselves ; and sometimes to personal pronouns; as, himself itself, them- 
selves. It then, like own, expresses emphasis and opposition ; as, " I did 
this myself;" that is, "it was not done by anothr:" or it forms a recip- 
rocal pronoun ; as, " We hurt ourselves by vain rage." 

Questions. 

(1) How is the word that construed? — (2) When is it a relative? — (3) When a 
demonstrative ? — (4) When a conjunction ?— (o) What words are called interrogative 
pronouns ? — (6) Wnat are adjective pronouns ? — (7) How are adjective pronouns 
subdivided ?— (8) Which are the possessive ? 



ETYMOLOGY, 87 

Himself, themselves, are now used in the nominative case, instead of 
hisself theirselves; as, "He came himself;" "He himself shall do this;" 
" They performed it themselves." 

The Distributive Pronouns 1 are those which denote the persons 
or things that make up a number, as taken separately and singly. They 
are, each, cvei-y, either; as, "Each of his brothers is in a favorable 
situation ; " " Every man must account for himself; " " I have not seen 
either of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of 
the two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of 
them, all taken separately. This pronoun was formerly used apart from 
its noun, but it is now constantly annexed to it, except in legal proceed- 
ings ; as in the phrase, "all and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signi- 
fies the one or the other. To say, " either of the three," is therefore 
improper. 

Neither imports not either; that is, not one nor the other; as, "Neither 
of my friends was there." 

The Demonstrative Pronouns 2 are those which precisely point out 
the subjects to which they relate : this and that, these and those, former 
and latter, are of this class ; as, " This is true charity ; that is only its 
image." 

The Indefinite Pronouns 3 are those which express their subjects in an 
indefinite or general manner. The following are of this kind; some, 
one, any, other, all, such, &c 

Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are varied. One has 
a possessive case, which it forms in the same manner as nouns do ; as, 
one, one's. This word has a general signification, meaning people at 
large ; and sometimes also a peculiar reference to the person who is 
speaking ; as, " One ought to pity the distresses of mankind ; " " One 
is apt to love one's self." This word is often used by good writers in the 
plural number; as, "The great ones of the world;" "The boy wounded 
the old bird, and stole the young ones ; " "My wife and the little ones are 
in good health." 

Other is declined in the following manner : — 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Norn. 


Other, 4 


Others, 


Poss. 


Other's, 


Others', 


Obj. 


Other; 


Others. 



The plural others, is used only when apart from the noun to which 
it refers, whether expressed or understood ; as, " When you have pe- 
rused these papers, I will send you the others ; " " He pleases some, but 
he disgusts others" When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either 
singular or plural, it has no variation ; as, " the other man ; " " the 
other men." 

The word another is composed of the indefinite article an and the 
word other. 

Questions. 

(1) Which are the distributive adjective pronouns? — (2) Which are the demon- 
strative ? — (3) Which are the indefinite ? — (4) Decline the pronoun other. 



88 



ETYMOLOGY. 



None is used in both numbers ; as, "None is so deaf as he that will not 
hear ;" "None of those are equal to these." It seems originally to have 
signified, according to its derivation, not one, and therefore to have had 
no plural ; but there is good authority for the use of it in the plural 
number ; as, "None that go unto her return again." — Prov. ii. 19. 

Which and what, 1 when prefixed to nouns, are Interrogative Adjective 
Pronouns; as, "What time did he arrive?" "Which house did he 
occupy ? " 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction 2 is a word that is generally used to connect sentences, 
so as, out of two or more sentences, to make but one : it sometimes con- 
nects only words. 

The principal conjunctions 3 are divided into two sorts— the copulative 
and the disjunctive. 

The Conjunction Copulative 4 serves to connect and to continue a 
sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c; as r 
"He and his brother reside in London ; " "I will go if he will accompany 
me ; " " You are happy, because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive 5 serves not only to connect and continue 
the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in different de- 
grees; as, " Though he was frequently reproved, yet he did not reform ;" 
" They came with her, but they went away without her." 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions: — 

The copulative : 6 and, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, 
wherefore. 

The disjunctive : 7 but, or, nor % as r than, l$st,, though, unless, either^ 
neither, yet, notwithstanding^ 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction and as an 
adverb ; and sometimes as a preposition &*& I rest, then, upon this argu- 
ment;" then is here a conjunction i in the following phrase, it is an ad- 
verb ; " He arrived then, and not before."— -" I submitted, for it was vain 
to resist ;" in this sentence, for is a conjunction : in the next, it is a prep- 
osition ; "He contended for victory only."— In the first of the following 
sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a preposition ; and 
in the third, an adverb : — " Since we must part, leit us do it peaceably." 
" I have not seen him since that time.." " Qur friendship commenced 
long since." 

Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen- 
tences ; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his 
commandments." 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite 
only words ; as in the following instances : — " Duty and interest forbid 
vicious indulgences." "Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these 
forms of expression contains two sentences, namely, "Duty forbids 
vicious indulgences; interest forbids vicious indulgences;" "Wisdom 
governs us, or folly governs us." 

Questions. 

(1) Which are the interrogative adjective pronouns? — (2) What is a Conjunction ? 
-r-(3) How are conjunctions divided? — (4) What is the office of a copulative conjunc- 
tion ? — (5) What of a disjunctive ?*-r{6) Repeat the copulative, conjunctions.— (7) 
Repeat the disjunctive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases appropriated 
to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed in joining the 
members of a sentence ; so there are several conjunctions appropriated 
to the latter use, which are never employed in the former ; and some 
that are equally adapted to both those purposes; as, again, further, 
beside, &c, of the first kind ; than, lest, unless, that, so that, &c, of the 
second; and hut, and, for, therefore, &c, of the lasU 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions T are words used to connect other words, &c. [See 
definition on 26th page.] Prepositions are, for the most part, put 
before nouns and pronouns ; as, " He went from London to York ; n 
" She is above disguise ; " " They are instructed by him." 

[Preposition comes from the Latin pre-pono, which signifies to put before; 
and prepositions are so called because they are pat before nouns and pronouns.] 

A List of the principal Prepositions. 2 Above, against, about r 
after, amidst, across, among, athivart, at; behind, below, before, beside, 
beneath, between, betwixt, beyond, by ; concerning ; down, during ; except ; 
for, from; in, into; near; of on or upon; round or around; since; 
through, throughout, till, touching, toward; under, underneath, up; within, 
without ; — out of; over ; over against ; next to ; according to ; instead 
of, &c. 

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to up- 
hold, to invest, to overlook; and this composition sometimes gives a new 
sense to the verb; as, to undersiand r to withdraw, to forgive. But in 
English, the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and 
separately from it, like an adverb, in which situation it is not less apt 
to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning ; yet the 
preposition may still be considered as belonging to the verb, and as a 
part of it ; as, to cast is to throw ; but to cast up, or to compute, an 
account, is quite a different thing; thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give 
over, &c. So that the meaning of the verb, and the propriety of the 
phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables em- 
ployed, which grammarians have called inseparable prepositions ; as, be, 
con, mis, &c, in bedeck, conjoin, mistake. 

One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express those rela- 
tions, which, in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, or the 
different endings of nouns. (Seepage 61.) The necessity and use of 
them will appear from the following examples : — If we say, " He writes 
apen;" "They ran the river ;" "The tower fell the Greeks^" "Lan> 
beth is Westminster Abbey;" there is observable, in each of these ex- 
pressions, either a total want of connection, or such a connection as- 
produces falsehood or nonsense ; and it is evident, that, before they caia 
be turned into sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some connecting 
word ; as thus, " He writes with a pen ; " " They ran towards the river ;" 
"The tower fell upon the Greeks;" "Lambeth is over against West- 
minster Abbey." We see* by these instances, Uow prepositions may be 
necessary to connect those words, which, in their signification, are not 
naturally connected. 

Questions. 

£1) What is a Preposition ? — (2) Give a list of the principal propositi »aa» 
& * 



90 ETYMOLOGIC 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation^ seem to nave 
denoted relations of place ; but they are now used figuratively to ex- 
press other relations. For example, — "as they who are above have, in 
several respects, the advantage of such as are below." Prepositions ex- 
pressing high and low places are used for superiority and inferiority in 
general ; as, " He is above disguise ; " " We serve under a good master ; f 
" He rules over a willing people ; " " We should do nothing beneath our 
character." 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections \ are words used to express the passions or emotions of 
the speaker or the writer; asj "Oh! I have alienated my friend l n 
" Alas ! I fear for life ! " " O virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " 

The English interjections, as well as those of other languages, are 
comprised within a small compass. They are of different sorts, accord- 
ing to the different passions which they serve to express. Those which 
intimate earnestness or grief, are, O! oh! ah! alas! Such as are ex- 
pressive of contempt, are, pish ! tush /—of wonder, heigh ! really !' 
strange ! — of calling, hem ! ho ! soho ! — -of aversion or disgust, foh ! fie ! 
away! — of a call of the attention, lo ! behold! hark!— of requesting si- 
lence, hush ! hist ! — of salutation, loelcome ! hail! all hail ! — Besides these, 
several others, frequent in the mouths of the multitude, might be enu- 
merated ; but, in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it is unnecessary to. 
expatiate on such expressions of passion as are scarcely worthy of being 
ranked among the branches of artificial language. 

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

These are words derived chiefly from other languages. 2 They have, 
Hke all other words, though seldom employed singly, a separate and 
distinct meaning of their own. As the most difficult, but most neces- 
sary part of study (to use the words of a great philosopher), is to find 
out and fix the meaning of words, the following explanation of what 
are called inseparable prepositions or particles is particularly worthy 
of the attention of the learner. A few of these words are still used 
separately. 

«# signifies on or in ; as, afoot, a-shore, a-bed ; that is, on foot, on shore r 
in bed. 

After denotes posteriority of time ; as, afternoon, after-times. 

Be is said to signify about ; as, besprinkle, bestir, that is, stir about ; — 
also/or and before; as, bespeak, that is, speak for or before., 

" The true character of 6e," says Mr. Grant, "seems to be, to commu- 
nicate, or deeply involve in, an action, a thing,, or quality ; as, bedaub, 
bewilder, bewail, belove." Be has the same general effect as all the other 
prefixes and affixes: it fits the word to which it is added, to be joined to 
other words; 

For implies negation or privation; as^ forbid, forsake, that is, not bid y 
not seek. 

Fore signifies before; as, see, foresee, that is, see before-hand ; fore-foot,, 
fore-father. The opposite is hind ; as, hind-foot. 

Questions, 

(1) What is an Interjection? — (5) From what are Inseparable Prepositions chiefly 
derived % 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

Gain is a contraction or against; as, gainsay, or contradict. 

jyKss denotes defect or error ; as, take, mistake, take wrongly. This 
word is said to be derived from the Saxon mis and Gothic missa, a fault 
or defect ; hence probably the English to miss or to fail, and amiss ; and 
hence also the French mes, as in meconnoitre, to forget. 

In, has its usual signification, in instil, imprison, inlay, imprint. 

Over denotes eminence, superiority, inversion, or transition ; as, come, 
overcome, overthrow, oversee, overlook ;•$ — also excess ; as, overhasty ; — figura- 
tively,, overhear, overtake. 

Out signifies excess or superiority ; as, outdo, outrun. 

Un, before an adjective* denotes negation, or privation ; as, unworthy, 
that is, not worthy^ But before verbs, it denotes the undoing or the de- 
stroying energy or act ; as, unsay, that is, retract what you have said. 

Up denotes motion upwards ; as, start, upstart: — rest in a higher place ;. 
as, hold, uphold; — sometimes subversion; as, set, upset. 

With signifies against; as, withstand, that is, stand against ;— from 
or back ^ as,, withhold, that is, hold from, or back ; — withdraw, or draw 
baek^ 

Under implies inferiority or defect; as, underdo, undersell; — figura 
tively, undergo, understand, undertake. 

The following are borrowed from the French counter, en, enter, sur : — 

Counter denotes against ; as, counterbalance, that is, balance against. 

En or em, the same as in enrich, encourage, embroider ; — enrage, that is> 
put in a rage. 

Enter denotes between; as, enterline (interline), that is, put a line be- 
tween ; enterlace, that is, intermix ; enterprise, something taken in hand, or 
between hands. 

Sur denotes over or addition ; as, surpass, that is, exceed ; surname, &c. 

The Latin prepositions used in the composition of English words 
are, a, ab or abs, ad, ante, con, circum, contra, de, di, dis, e or ex, extra, 
in, inter, intro t ob, per, post, pre, pro, preter, re, retro, se, sub, subter, super, 
trans, ultra. 

A, ab, abs, denote from or away ; as, abstain, that is, keep from ; abuse, that 
is, from the use, wrong use. 

Ad signifies to or at; as, adhere, that is, stick to. 

Ante signifies before ; as, antecedent or going before. 

Circum signifies about ; as, circumspect, that is, looking about. 

Com, con, co, col, from cum, signify together ; as, condole, that is, lament 
together ; co-operate, that is, work together. 

Contra denotes against ; as, contradict, that is, speak against. 

De signifies down or from;' as, deject, or cast down; depart, or part 
from. 

Di, dis, signify asunder; as, distract, or draw asunder. In many words, 
dis seems to denote negation or privation ; as, disinter, that is, unbury ; 
displease, that is, not please. 

The French say, de-courager, to dis-courage. Their preposition is 
der. 

E, ex, out of; as, eject, or cast out ; exclude, or shut out. 

Extra, without, beyond, out of; as, extravagant, or wandering beyond. 

In before an adjective, like un, denotes privation ;. as, indecent, not decent. 
Before a verb, it has its simple meaning. 

Inter signifies among or between; as, intervene,, or come between^ la 
interdict, or forbid, it has a negative eflbeU. 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

Intro denotes within ; as, introduce, or lead in. 

Ob denotes opposition; as, object, or cast against; obstacle, that is, 
something in opposition. 

Per signifies through or thoroughly ; as, pervade, that is, pass through 
perfect, that is, thoroughly done. 

Pre, before ; as, prepare, or procure beforehand. 

Post, after ; as, postscript, or written after. 

Pro denotes forth, forward ; as, promote, or move forward; produce, or 
oring* forth. 

Preter signifies past or beyond ; as, preternatural, or beyond the course 
of nature. 

Re signifies again, or &ac& ; as, reprint, or p-ini again ; repay, or ^at/ 
back. 

Retro signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, or going backwards 

Se, apart, or loithout; as, £0 secrete, or j?w£ aside; secure, or itfif/i- 
9u£ care. 

jSm& signifies nnefer ; as, subsciibe, or tmfe under. 

Subter signifies under; as, subterfluous, or flowing under; subterfuge, 
or escape under. 

Super, above, or over ; as, superadd, add over or above. 

Trans or £ra signifies over or beyond ; as, transgress, go over or beyond ; 
-—it denotes /rom one pZace £0 another ; as, transplant, transpose, &c. 

t/ftra signifies beyond ; as, ultra-marine, or beyond the sea. 

The Greek prepositions and participles compounded with English 
words are, a, amphi, anti, apo, hyper, dia, hypo, epi, meto, para, peri, syn, hemi. 

A signifies privation ; as, anarchy, or the state of being ivithout govern- 
ment. 

Amphi, both, or the two ; as, amphibious, or the state of living in two 
ways. 

Anti, against; as, antidote, or something given against poison. 

Apo, from ; as, apogee, or from the earth. 

Hyper, over and above ; as, hypercritical, that is, over or too critical. 

Dia, through ; as, diaphoresis, or a wearing through, perspiring. 

Hypo, under, implying ; as, hypocrite, or a person concealing his real 
character. 

Epi, upon; as, epidemic, or itjoon the people. 

Meta denotes change, or transmutation ; as, metamorphose, or change 
the shape. 

Para, beyond, on one side ; thus, paragraph, that is,, a writing by the side 
(originally used to mean a marginal note); paradox, that is, an opinion 
beyond, or on one side, an extraordinary opinion ; paraphrase, that is, a 
phrase that may be placed by the side, an equivalent phrase. 

Peri, about ; as, periphrasis, or a speech in a roundabout way, a cir- 
cumlocution. 

Syn,,sym, syl, ivith or together ; as, synod, or meeting together; sympa- 
thy, or feeling together. 

Hemi, as well as semi and demi,. denotes half; — hemisphere, or half of a 
sphere ;: semi-circle, or half a circle ; demi-god, or half a god.. 



OF DERIVATION. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways ; viz. 
1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from to love comes "lover;," 
from ta visit x " visitor ;," from to survive, "survivor," &c 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from ad- 
verbs ; as, from the noun salt comes " to salt ; " from the adjective warm, 
" to warm ; " and from the adverb forward, " to forward." Sometimes 
they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; 
as, from grass, " to graze ;" — sometimes by adding en; as, from length, 
"to lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from short, "to shorten;" 
bright, "to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns, in the following manner: — Ad- 
jectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns, by adding y ; as, from 
health, " healthy ; " wealth, " wealthy ; " might, " mighty," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns, by adding ful; 
as, from joy, "joyful ; " sin, " sinful ; " fruit, " fruitful," &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns, by adding less ; as, 
from worth, "worthless;" care, "careless;" joy, "joyless," &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns, by adding ly ; 
as, from man, " manly ; " earth, " earthly ; " court, " courtly," &c. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the ter- 
mination ness ; as, white, " whiteness ; " swift, " swiftness ; " — sometimes 
by adding th or t, and making a small change in some of the letters ; as, 
long, " length ; " high, " height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or 
changing le into ly ; and denote the same quality as the adjectives from 
which they are derived; as, from base comes "basely;" from slow, 
" slowly ; " from able, " ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, 
that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to enume- 
rate them. 



SYNTAX 



The third part of grammar is Syntax, which treats of the agreement 
and construction of words in a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words forming a complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A Simple Sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite * verb ; as, 
« Life is short." 

A Compound Sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con- 
nected ; as, " Time flies swiftly, and death approaches us ; " " Idleness 
produces want, vice, and misery." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so 
the members of sentences may be divided, likewise, into simple and 
compound members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compound- 
ed, may become members of other sentences, by means of some addi- 
tional connection ; as in the following example ; " The ox knoweth his 
owner, and the ass his master's crib; but Israel doth not know, my 
people do not consider." This sentence consists of two compounded 
members, each of which is subdivided into two simple members, which 
are properly called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences — the explicative, or ex- 
plaining ; the interrogative, or asking ; the imperative, or commanding. 

In an Explicative Sentence, a thing is said to be or not to be, 
to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner ; as, " I 
am ; " " Thou writest ; " " Thomas is loved." If the sentence is nega- 
tive, the adverb not is placed after the auxiliary, or after the verb itself 
when it has no auxiliary ; as, " I did not touch him ; " or, " I touched 
him not." 

In an Interrogative Sentence, or when a question is asked, the nomi- 
native case follows the principal verb or the auxiliary ; as, " Was it he ? " 
" Did Alexander conquer the Persians ? " 

In an Imperative Sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, 
to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the verb or the aux- 
iliary ; as, " Go, thou traitor ! " " Do thou go ; " " Haste ye away ; " un- 
less the verb let be used ; as, " Let us be gone." 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes 
part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the subject, the attribute, 
and the object 

The Subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the Attribute is the thing 
or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the Object is the thing affected 
by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the 
verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase denoting the object follows 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in 
the infinitive mode have no respect to number or person. 



SYNTAX. 95 

the verb ; as, a A wise man governs his passions." Here, a wise man 
is the subject ; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed ; and his passions, 
the object. 

Syntax consists of two parts, concord and government. 

Concord is the agreement of one word with another, in gender, 
number, case, or person. 

Government is the influence which one word has over another, in 
directing its mode, tense, or case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of words in a sentence, 
the following rules and observations should be carefully studied. 

ADJECTIVES. 

RULE I. 

Every adjective belongs to some noun {or pronoun) expressed or 

understood. 

Note I. Adjectives (in prose) should not be used for adverbs ; as, " indiffer- 
ent honest; " " excellent well ; " " miserable poor} " instead of " indifferently 
honest; " "excellently well; " " miserably poor." — " He behaved himself con- 
formable to that great example j" "conformably." — " I can never think so 
very mean of him ; " "meanly.'''' — "He describes this river agreeable to the 
common reading; " " agreeably."—" Agreeable to my promise, I now write}" 
" agreeably." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under JVbte 1, Rule I. 

She writes very neat. 

[Not proper, because the adjective neat is improperly used to express the 
manner in which the action write is performed. According to Note 1, under 
Rule I., " Adjectives should not be used for adverbs." Therefore neat should be 
neatly ; thus, " She writes very neatly."] 

His property is near exhausted. They lived conformable to the rules 
of prudence. He reasons very clear. He was extreme beloved. He 
speaks very fluent, he reads excellent, but does not think very coherent. 
He behaved himself submissive. I cannot think so mean of him. He 
was scarce gone when you arrived. 

Note II. When prefixed to an adjective or an adverb not ending in Zy, 
the word exceeding has ly added to it; as, "exceedingly great;" "exceed- 
ingly well ; " but when it is prefixed to an adverb, or an adjective having 
that termination, the ly is omitted ; as, u Some men think exceeding clearly* 
and reason exceeding forcibly ; " " She appeared, on this occasion, exceed- 
ing lovely." — "He acted in this business bolder than was expected ; " " They 
behaved the noblest, because they were disinterested." These should have 
been "more boldly" "most nobly." — The adjective pronoun such is often 
misapplied ; as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his 
whole patrimony in a few years:" it should be, "so extravagant a young 



96 SYNTAX. 

man." 1 — " I never before saw such large trees ; " " saic trees so large." — When 
we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly applied ; 
as, " Such a temper is seldom found ; " but when degree is signified, we use 
the word so; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule I. 
They rejected his advice, and conducted themselves exceedingly indis* 
creetly. He is a person of great abilities, and exceeding upright. The 
conspiracy was easier discovered from its being known to many. Not 
being fully acquainted with the subject, he could affirm no stronger than 
he did. Such an amiable disposition will secure universal regard. Such 
distinguished virtues seldom occur. 

Note III. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; thus, u They were 
seen wandering about solitarily and distressed ; " u solitary." — " The study of 
syntax should be previously to that of punctuation ; " "previous."* 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule I. 
Conformably to their vehemence of thought was their vehemence of 

* Young persons, who study grammar, find it difficult to decide, in particu- 
lar constructions, whether an adjective or an adverb ought to be used. A few 
observations on this point may serve to inform their judgment and direct 
their determination. They should carefully attend to the definitions of the ad- 
jective and the adverb; and consider whether, in the case in question, quality 
or manner is indicated. In the former case, an adjective is proper; in the lat- 
ter, an adverb. A number of examples will illustrate this direction, and prove 
useful on other occasions : — 

She looks cold — She looks coldly on him. 

He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult offered to him. 

He became sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous. 

She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense. 

Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly. 

Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly in reputation. 

They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest. 

The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point. 

The verb to be, in all its modes and tenses, generally requires the word 
immediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb; and con- 
sequently, when this verb can be substituted for any other, without varying 
the sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with an 
adjective. The following sentences elucidate these observations : — " This is 
agreeable to our interest." " That behavior was not suitable to his station. " 

is 
"Rules should be conformable to sense." "The rose smells sweet." "How 

is is 

sweet the hay smells ! " " How delightful the country appears ! " " How pleas- 
are are was 
antthefieldslook!" "The clouds look dark." "Howblack the sky looked!" 

is were is 

" The apple tastes sour ! " " How bitter the plums tasted ! " " He feels happy." 
In any of these sentences, we can, with perfect propriety, substitute some tense 
of the verb to be, for the other verbs. But in the following sentences, we can- 
not do this: — "The dog smells disagreeably." " George feels exquisitely." 
" How pleasantly she looks at us ! " 

The directions contained in this note are offered as useful, not as complete 
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us ; 
but we must not reject rules because they are attended with exceptions. 



SYNTAX. 97 

gesture. We should implant in the minds of youth such seeds and 
principles of piety and virtue, as are likely to take soonest and deep* 
est root. Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often in- 
firmities. He addressed several exhortations to them suitably to their 
circumstances. 

Note IV. Comparative terminations and adverbs of degree should not be 
applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison ; and double com- 
paratives and superlatives should be avoided ; such as, " a worser conduct;" 
" on lesser hopes ;" "a more serener temper." They should be, " worse con- 
duct; " " less hopes ; " "a more serene temper." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule I. 

'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. The 
tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it car- 
ries. The nightingale sings ; here is the most sweetest voice in the grove. 
The Most Highest hath created us for his glory and our own happiness. 
The Supreme Being is the most wisest, the most powerfulest, and the 
most best of beings. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and 
should be his chief desire. His assertion was more true than that of 
his opponent ; nay, the words of the latter were most untrue. His 
work is perfect ; his brother's more perfect ; and his father's the most 
perfect of all. 

Note V. When the comparative degree of an adjective is used, the latter 
term of comparison should not include the former ; and when the superlative 
is used, the latter term should never exclude the former. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule I. 

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. Profane swearing is, of all 
other vices, the most inexcusable. A talent of this kind would, perhaps, 
prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. He spoke with so much 
propriety, that I understood him the best of all the others who spoke on 
the subject 

Note VI. The personal pronoun them should never be used in the place of 
the adjective pronoun those; as, " Give me them books," instead of " Give 
me those books." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule I. 

Go and ask for them articles. How many of them apples did you 
purchase ? Which of them three men came to his assistance ? I will 
give them two quills to my friend. 

Note VII. The demonstratives this and these relate to the thing, or the 
things, last mentioned, or nearest ; that and those to the thing, or the things, first 
mentioned, or farthest off. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 7, Rule I. 
Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion sinks them beneath 
the brutes: that binds them down to a poor, pitiable speck of perishable 
earth", this opens for them a prospect to the skies. 

And, reason raise o'er instinct can, 

In that, 'tis God directs, in this 
9 



98 SYNTAX. 

Note VIII. The adjective pronouns this and that, these and those, should 
agree in number with the nouns to which they are added ; as, " these three 
years," not " this three years." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 8, Rule I. 

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. Instead of 
improving yourselves, you have been playing this two hours. Those 
sort of favors did real injury under the appearance of kindness. 

Note IX. The adjective pronouns each, every, either (and neither), refer 
to pronouns and verbs of the singular number only ; as, " Each of you has 
his friends." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 9, Rule I. 

Each of them in their turn receive the benefits to which they are en- 
titled. By discussing what relates to each particular, in their order, we 
shall better understand the subject. Every person, whatever be their 
station, are bound by the duties of morality and religion. Every leaf 
every twig, every drop of water, teem with life. Every man's heart and 
temper is productive of much inward joy or bitterness. Whatever he 
undertakes, either his pride or his folly disgust us. Every man and 
every woman were numbered. Neither of those men seem to have any 
idea that their opinions may be ill founded. 

Note X. The adjective pronouns either and neither must be used in refer- 
ence to two things only : when more are referred to, any and none should be 
used ; as, " any of the three," not " either of the three ; " " none of the four," 
not " neither of the four." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 10, Rule I. 

Have you recited either of the ten commandments this morning? He 
presented five copies, but neither of them were received. 

Note XI. When the adjective is necessarily plural, the noun to which 
it belongs must be plural also; as, " twenty pounds," not " twenty pound." 
There are, however, some exceptions to this ; as, " a hundred head of cat- 
tle," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 11, Rule I. 

The chasm made by the earthquake was twenty foot broad, and one 
hundred fathom in depth. 

Note XII. The noun means has the same form in both numbers ; it may, 
therefore, be used with an adjective pronoun either of the singular or of the 
plural number, as the sense requires. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 12, Rule I. 

Charles was extravagant, and by this means became poor and des- 
picable. It was by that ungenerous mean that he obtained his end. 



i 



SYNTAX. 99 

Though a promising measure, it is a mean which I cannot adopt. 
This person embraced every opportunity to display his talents; and by 
these means rendered himself ridiculous. Joseph was industrious, 
frugal, and discreet; and by this means obtained property and repu- 
tation. 

Note XIII. The comparative degree of an adjective can be used in refer- 
ence to two objects (or classes of objects) only ; as, " He is the taller of 
the two," The superlative degree has reference to three or more ; as, " He 
is the youngest of the twelve." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 13, Rule I. 

He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. Trisyllables are 
often accented on the former syllable. 

Note XIV. When a noun is attended by two or more adjectives, that which 
expresses the most distinguishing quality, should be placed next to the noun ; 
as, " a poor old man," not " an old poor man." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 14, Rule L 

He spoke in a distinet enough manner to be heard by the whole as- 
sembly. Thomas is equipped with a new pair of shoes, and a new pair 
of gloves; he is the son of an old rich man. The two first in the row 
are cherry-trees ; the two others are pear-trees. 



ARTICLES. 

RULE II. 

The article refers to its noun (or pronoun) to limit its signification. 

The article a or an refers to nouns of the singular number only, individually 
or collectively ; as, " a Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." The definite 
article, the, properly refers to nouns of both numbers ; as, " the garden, the 
houses, the stars." 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly 
applied according to their distinct nature; as, " Gold is corrupting;" "The 
sea is green;" "A lion is bold." If I say, "He behaved with a little 
reverence," my meaning is positive. If I say, "He behaved with little 
reverence," my meaning is negative. By the former expression I rather 
praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. For the sake of this dis- 
tinction, which is a very useful one, we may better bear the seeming impro- 
priety of using the indefinite article before nouns of number. When I say, 
"There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and mean to represent 
them as inconsiderable ; whereas, when I say, " There were a few men 
with him," I evidently intend to make the most of them. It is correct to 
*ay, with the article, " He is in a great hurry," but not " in great hurry." 
And yet, in the expression " He is in great haste," the article should be omit* 



100 SYNTAX. . 

ted, as it would be improper to say, "He is in a great haste." A nice dis- 
cernment and careful attention to the best usage are necessary to direct us 
in the use of the articles. 

Note 1. When a noun or a pronoun is used in an unlimited sense, the article 
should be omitted ; as, " Man is the noblest work of creation," not " A man," 
&c. The articles are omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, 
vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. They are not pre- 
fixed to proper names, as Washington, Jefferson (because those of themselves 
denote determinate individuals, or particular things), except for the sake of 
distinguishing a particular family ; as, " He is a Howard, or of the family of 
the Howards ; " or by way of eminence ; as, " Every man is not a Newton ; " 
or when some noun is understood; as, " He sailed down the (river) Thames, 
in the (ship) Britannia." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note I, Rule II. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 

[Not proper, because the article a is used before man, which should be 
used in its widest sense. According to Note 1st, Rule 2d, " When a noun 
or a pronoun is used in an unlimited sense, the article should he omit- 
ted." Therefore it should stand thus, " Reason was given to man to control 
his passions."] 

The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are the four elements of 
the philosophers. Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. My 
friend is another sort of a man. He is strong in the faith. I am per- 
secuted this way unto the death. Such qualities honor the nature of 
a man. 

Note II. When a noun is not used in an unlimited sense, an article (or 
some other definitive) should be prefixed to it ; as, " The wisest and the best 
men sometimes commit errors." 

Examples to be corrected under Note % Rule II. 

We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and 
from matter. Beware of drunkenness; it impairs understanding. 
There are some evils of life which equally affect both prince and 
people. 

Note III. In expressing a comparison, if both nouns relate to tire same 
thing, the article should not be prefixed to the latter ; if to different things, it 
should not be omitted. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule II. 

He is a much better writer than a reader. I should rather wrong a 
friend than foe. 

Note IV. When titles are mentioned merely as titles, the article should 
riot be used. 



SYNTAX. 101 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule II. 

The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. Our commander 
presented him the commission of a captain. The highest title in the 
state is the governor. 

Note V. When the indefinite article is required, a should, generally, be 
used before a word commencing with a letter having a " consonant sound," 
and an before a word commencing with a letter having a "vowel sound." — 
[For exceptions, see Appendix, p. 128.] 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule II. 

This is an hard saying. It is an humiliating fact. I have not seen? 
such an one. 

Note VI. Adjectives expressing inconsistent qualities should not be joined 
to the same noun ; as, u The old and new method." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule II. 

The book was read by the old and young. I have both a large and 
small grammar. I see both the large and small vessel. 



VERBS. 

RULE III. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in person and number r 
as, " I learn ; " " Thou art improved ; " " The birds sing." 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule : — " What sig- 
nifies good opinions when our practice is bad ? " " What signify." — " We may 
suppose there was more impostors than one ; " "there were more." — " If thou 
would be healthy, live temperately;" " if thou icoiddst." — "Thou sees how 
little has been done ; " M Thou seest." — " Though thou cannot do much for the 
cause, thou may and thou should do something;" "canst not, mayst, and 
shouldst." — " Full many a flower are born to blush unseen ; " " is born." — " A 
variety of blessings have been conferred upon us;" " has been." — "In piety 
and virtue consist the happiness of man; " "consists." — " To these precepts are 
subjoined a copious selection of rules and maxims; " " is subjoined." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule IH. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

[Not proper, because the verb charm is of the plural number, and does not 
agree with its nominative, variety, which is of the singular. According to 
Rule 3d, " A verb must agree with its nominative case in person and number " 
Therefore charm should be charms; thus, "A variety of pleasing objects 
charms the eye."] 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of hope 
give consolation. The smiles that encourages severity of judgment,, 
bides malice and insincerity. He dare not act contrary to his instru«^ 

a* 



102 SYNTAX. 

tions. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. The 
mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown a few centuries 
ago. The number of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland do not 
exceed sixteen millions. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight 
some persons. In the conduct of Parmenio, a mixture of wisdom and 
folly were very conspicuous. The inquisitive and curious is generally 
talkative. Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. I am 
sorry to say it, but there was more equivocators than one. The sincere 
is always esteemed. There is many occasions in life, in which silence 
and simplicity is true wisdom. Thou, who art the Author and Bestower 
of life, can doubtless restore it also; but whether th.o.u will please to re- 
store it, or not, Thou onlv knows.. 






-O Thou, my voice inspire, 



Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.. 
Accept these grateful tears ; for thee they flow, 
For thee that ever felt another's wo. 

Note I. Every verb (excepting such as are in the infinitive mode, or in 
the imperative mode absolute) must have a nominative case, either expressed 
or implied ; as, "Awake; arise ; " that is, " Awake ye ; arise ye." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule III. 

If the privileges, to which he has an undoubted right, and he has long 
enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would be flagrant injustice. 
These curiosities we have imported from China, and are similar to those 
\yhicb were, some time ago, brought from Africa. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? 

- Note II. Every noun, and every pronoun,, (not in the case possessive, 
objective, independent, nor absolute,) should be the nominative to some verb, 
either expressed or implied ; as, " Who wrote this book? " — " James;" that 
is> " James wrote it." "To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule III. 

Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the 
same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. Virtue, however it 
may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to ac- 
knowledge and respect genuine merit. 

Note III. Though a noun of multitude (or signifying many) may have a 
verb or a pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or the plural number, 
yet regard must be had to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plu- 
rality of idea; as, " The meeting was large;" "The nation is powerful;" 
* The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule III. 

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. The crowd 
were so great, that the judges with difficulty made their way through 
them. When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their 
XQic^ ! n the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure 



SYNTAX. 103 



as its chief good. The church have no power to inflict corporeal punish- 
ment. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. The regiment con- 
sist of a thousand men. The meeting have established several salutary 
regulations. The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. 



ADVERBS. 

RULE IV. 

Adverbs qualify verbs and participles. 

Note I. Adverbs, though they have no properties, should have that posi- 
tion which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and elegant. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Example to be corrected under Note 1, Rule IV. 
The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

[Not proper, because the adverb perpetually is not in its proper place. 
According to Note 1st, Rule 4th, " Adverbs, though they hate no properties, 
should have that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and 
elegant" Therefore perpetually should be placed before in; thus, " The 
heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion."] 

He was pleasing not often because he was vain. William nobly acted, 
though he was unsuccessful. We may happily live, though our posses- 
sions are small. He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he 
became submissive. So well-educated a boy gives great hopes to his 
friends. We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It is im- 
possible continually to be at work. One argument should happily appear 
to rise from another. These things should be never separated. 

Note II. The adverbs here, there, and where, ought not to be applied to 
verbs signifying motion ; as, " He came here hastily ; " " They rode there with 
speed ;" instead of" He came hither," " They rode thither ," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule IV. 

It is reported that the prince will come here to-morrow. George is 
active: he walked there in less than an hour. Where are you all going 
in such haste ? Whither have they been since they left the city ? 

Note III. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are equiva- 
lent to an affirmative; as, " Nor did they not perceive him; " that is, " They 
did perceive him." — " His language, though inelegant, is not ungrammatical ; " 
that is, " it is grammatical." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule IV. 

Neither riches, nor honors, nor no such perishing goods, can satisfy the 
desires of an immortal spirit. Be honest, nor take no shape nor sem- 
blance of disguise. We need not nor do not confine his operations to 
narrow limits. There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity, 
Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct of her chikL 



104 



SYNTAX, 



Do not interrupt me yourselves, nor let no one disturb my retirement. 
The measure is so unexceptionable, that we cannot by no means permit 
it. I have received no information on the subject, neither from him nor 
from his friend. 

PARTICIPLES. 

RULE V. 

Participles ending in ing relate to the nouns (or the pronouns) of 
which they express the action, (state, or being.) 

RULE VI. 

Adverbs of degree qualify adjectives and other adverbs* 



PRONOUNS. 

RULE VII. 

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in person, number, 

and gender. 

[The relative, being of the same person that the antecedent is, requires the 
verb which agrees with it to be of the same person that it would be to agree 
with the antecedent; as, " Thou who lovest wisdom walkest uprightly ; " " He 
who loves wisdom walks uprightly."] 

Note I. All pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in 
person, number, and gender. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule VII. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment which was with her in xhe house, and 
put them on Jacob. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun them is of the plural number, and there- 
fore does not properly represent the noun raiment, which is of the singular. 
According to Note 1st, Rule 7th, " Ml pronouns must agree with the nouns for 
which they stand, in person, number, and gender." Therefore them should be 
it; thus, " Rebecca took goodly raiment, which was with her in the house, 
and put it upon Jacob."] 

The male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the color 
of its species. The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which 
have lost their lives by this means. The fair sex, whose task is not to 
mingle in the labors of public life, has its own part assigned it to act. 
The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the ac- 
tivity of his thoughts. I do not think any one should incur censure for 
being tender of their reputation. Thou, who has been a witness of the 
&ct> canst give an account of it. la religious concerns^ or what i& con- 



SYNTAX. 105 

ceived to be such, every man must stand or fall by the decision of the 
Great Judge. 

Note II. The relative pronoun who should be applied only to persons 
(and to other animals personified), which to other animals and inanimate 
things. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule VII. 

I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. The exercise 
of reason appears as little in these sportsmen as in the beasts whom they 
sometimes hunt, and by whom they are sometimes hunted. They which 
seek Wisdom will certainly find her. He is a wise man which speaks 
little. The woman which we saw is very amiable. 

Note III. The relative that (applied to persons) is preferable to who in the 
following cases : — First, after the interrogative who; as, "Who that has any 
sense of religion would have argued thus ? " Secondly, when persons make 
but part of the antecedent ; as, " The woman and the estate, that became his 
portion, were rewards far beyond his desert." Thirdly, after an adjective in 
the superlative degree, and after the adjective same, that is generally used 
in preference to who or which; as, " Charles XII., king of Sweden, was one 
of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule VII. 
Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testa- 
ment. Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can pos- 
sess. The men and things which he has studied have not improved 
his morals. 

Note IV. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, the rela- 
tive which should be used, and not who. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule VII. 
Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of Nero, 
who was indeed another name for cruelty. Flattery, whose nature is to 
deceive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous adder. 

Note V. The relative pronoun should be placed as near its antecedent as 
possible, to prevent ambiguity in the sense. 

Examples to be corrected under N*ote 5, Rule VII. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, who had never 
before committed so unjust an action. There are millions of people in 
the empire of China whose support is derived almost entirely from rice. 

Note VI. When the antecedent only implies the idea of persons, and ex- 
presses them by some circumstance or epithet, which should be used, and not 
who ; as, " The faction which," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule VII. 

He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. The court, 
who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary. 



106 



SYNTAX, 



Note VII. Personal pronouns (being, generally, used to supply the place 
of nouns) should not (unless they are in apposition) be used in the same part 
of the sentence. The following sentence, therefore, is incorrect: "The king 
he is just." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 7, Rule VII. 
Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. The 
cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. 

RULE VIII. 

Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed 
or understood, [See Examples under Rule I.] 

VERBS. 

RULE IX. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Who did they entertain so freely ? 

[Not proper, because the relative who, which is the object of the transitive 
verb did entertain, is in the nominative case. According to Rule 9th, " Tran- 
sitive verbs govern the objective case" Therefore who should be whom; thus, 
" Whom did they entertain so freely ? "] 

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, 
cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature* Who have I reason to love 
so much as this friend of my youth? Ye, who were dead, hath he 
quickened. The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. He and 
they we know, but who are you ? She that is idle and mischievous, re- 
prove sharply. Who did they send to him on so important an errand ? 
That is the friend who you must receive cordially, and whom you can- 
not esteem too highly. He invited my brother and I to see and examine 
his library. He who committed the offence, you should correct ; not I ? 
who am innocent. 

PARTICIPLES. 

RULE X. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs from which 
they are derived; as, "I am weary with hearing him;" « She 
is instructing us ; " " The tutor is admonishing Charles" 

FALSE SYNTAX 
Examples to be corrected under Rule X. 
Suspecting ye of unfairness, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. 
[Not proper, because the pronoun ye, which is the object of the participle 



SYNTAX. 107 

suspecting^ is in the nominative case. According to Rule 10th, " Participles 
have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived.''' There- 
fore ye should be you ; thus, u Suspecting you of unfairness, I was studious to 
avoid all intercourse."] 

Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. Suspecting not only 
ye, but they also, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. I could not 
avoid considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me, and he as a 
suspicious friend. From having exposed hisself too freely to different 
climates, he entirely lost his health. 

Note I. When an article, possessive adjective pronoun, or noun in the pos- 
sessive case, is prefixed to a participle, it becomes a noun, and should be fol- 
lowed by the preposition of, if there be any following word which needs gov- 
ernment. Both must be used, or both omitted. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule X. 

By observing of truth, you will command esteem as well as secun 
peace. He prepared them for this event, by the sending to them propei 
information. A person may be great or rich by chance, but cannot 
be wise or good, without the taking pains for it. Nothing could have 
made her so unhappy as the marrying a man who possessed such 
principles. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

RULE XI. 

Nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions must be in the 

same case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XI 

You and us enjoy many privileges. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun us, which is in the objective case, is con- 
nected to you, which is in the nominative. According to Rule 11th, " Nouns 
and pronouns connected by conjunctions must be in the same case." Therefore 
us should be we ; thus, " You and we enjoy many privileges."] 

My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. She and him are 
very unhappily connected. Between him and I there is some disparity 
of years, but none between him and she. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

RULE XII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Rule XII. 

He laid the suspicion on somebody, I know not who, in the com- 
pany. 



108 StfNTA*. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun who, which is the object of the preposition 
upon, is in the nominative case. According to Rule 12th, " Prepositions gov* 
ern the objective case." Therefore who should be whom; thus, " I know not 
whom in the company."] 

I hope it is not I who he is displeased with. To poor we, there is 
not much hope remaining. Does that boy know who he speaks to ? 
Who does he offer such language to ? It was not he they were so angry 
with. What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes, 
and they who abhor them ? The person who I travelled with has sold 
his horse which he rode on during our journey. Who did he receive 
that intelligence from ? 

Note I. The preposition to is used before nouns of place, when they follow 
verbs, and participles of motion ; but at is generally used after the verb to be. 
The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; but before 
villages, single houses, and cities, which are in distant countries, preceded by 
a neuter verb, at is used. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XII. 

I have been to London, after having resided a year at France ; and I 
now live in Islington. They have just landed in Hull, and are going for 
Liverpool. They intend to reside some time at Ireland. 

[For further remarks on the use of prepositions, see page 89.] 

RULE XIIL 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name 
of the thing possessed ; as, " My father's house ; n " Man's hap- 
piness ; " " Virtue's reward." 

Note I. In writing the possessive case, its proper form should be ob- 
served. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XIIL 

His brothers offence will not condemn him. 

[Not proper, because the noun brothers, which is intended for the singular 
number possessive case, is in the plural number, and has not the proper form 
of that case. According to Note 1st, Rule 13th, " In writing the possessive 
case, its proper form should be observed." Therefore brothers should be broth- 
er's; thus, " His brother's offence will not condemn him."] 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake. Nevertheless, Asa his heart 
was perfect with the Lord. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, 
are natures gifts' for mans advantage. A mans manner's frequently 
influence his fortune. Wisdoms precepts' form the good mans interest 
and happiness. 

Note II. When several nouns in the possessive case come together, the 
apostrophe, with s, is annexed to the last ? and understood after the others. 



SYNTAX* 109 

Examples to he corrected under Note % Rule XIII. 

It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calami- 
ties. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation, was that of fishermen. 

Note III. To avoid a recurrence of hissing sounds, the s is sometimes 
omitted, and the apostrophe only retained ; as, " Achilles' wrath/' 

Examples to oe corrected under Note 3, Rule XIII. 

And he cast himself down at Jesus feet. Moses rod was turned into 
a serpent. For Herodias sake, his brother Philips wife. If ye suffer 
for righteousness's sake, happy are ye. Ye should be subject for con- 
science's sake. 

RULE XIV. 

Verbs in the infinitive mode generally, depend on uerbs, nouns, 
adjectives, or participles. 

Note I. When a verb in the infinitive mode follows make, need, see, bidj 
dare, hear, feel, let, and some other words, the sign to should be omitted; as, 
u I make him study." [For exceptions to this note, see page 40,] 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XIV. 

I need not to solicit him to do a kind action. 

[Not proper, because the sign to is inserted before the verb solicit, which 
follows need. According to Note 1st, Rule 14th, " When a verb in the infini- 
tive mode follows make, need, see, fyc, the sign to should be omitted." There- 
fore to should be omitted ; thus, " I need not solicit him to do a kind 
action."] 

It is better to live on a little, than outlive a great deal. You ought not 
walk too hastily. I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. I dare 
not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence. I have seen some 
young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. It is a great sup- 
port to virtue, when we see a good mind to maintain its patience 
and tranquillity under injuries and affliction, and to cordially forgive its 
oppressors. 

RULE XV. 

Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same mode and tense, 
and of the same form of conjugation 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XV. 

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? 

[Not proper, because the word entreated, which is of the common form of 

conjugation, is connected to did tell, which is of the emphatic form. Ac* 

cording to Rule 15th, " Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same 

mode and tense, and of the same form of conjugation." Therefore en. 

10 



110 SYNTAX. 

treated should be entreat; thus, " Did he not tell me his fault, and entreat me 
to forgive him?"] 

Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind. 
If he understand the subject, and attends to it industriously, he can 
scarcely fail of success. If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of 
them is gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth 
into the mountains and seeketh that which is gone astray ? To be mod- 
erate in our views, and proceeding temperately in pursuit of them, is the 
best way to insure success. 

Note I. When the sense requires the verbs to be of different modes or tenses, 
the nominative must be repeated ; — then the conjunction will connect two 
members of the sentence, not two words. 

Examples to be corrected tinder Note 1, Rule XV.. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce virtue. 
He does not want courage, but is defective in sensibility. These peo- 
ple have indeed acquired great riches, but do not command esteem. 
Our season of improvement is short, and, whether used or not, will 
soon pass away. He might have been happy, and is now fully con- 
vinced of it. 

Note II. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, 
and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun, or pronoun, 
which should be placed next to the verb. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule XV. 

Both of the scholars, or one of them, at least, was present at the trans- 
action. Some parts of the ship and cargo were recovered ; but neither 
the sailors nor the captain was saved. The cares of this life, or 
the deceitfulness of riches, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a 
promising mind. 

Note III. When two pronouns, or a noun and a pronoun, of different per- 
sons, are disjunctively connected, the -verb must agree in number and person 
with the word nearest to it. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule XV. 

Either thou or I art greatly mistaken in our judgment on this 
subject. I or thou am the person who must undertake the business 
proposed. 

RULE XVI* 

A perfect participle, unconnected with an auxiliary, relates to the 
noun or the pronoun which it qualifies or describes. 

RULE XVII. 

Intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, take the same case after, as 
that which next precedes them, when both words refer to the same 
person or thing. 



SYNTAX. Ill 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XVLL 

I would act the same part if I were him, or in his situation. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun him, which follows the neuter verb were, is 
in the objective case, and does not agree in case with the pronoun /. According 
to Rule 17th, li Intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, take the same case after, as 
tliat ichich j)£xt precedes them, when both words refer to the same person or thing." 
Therefore him should be he; thus, " If I were he, or in his situation."] 

Be composed: it is me: you have no cause for fear. I know not 
whether it were them who conducted the business ; but I am certain it 
was not him. He so much resembled my brother, that, at first sight, I took 
it to be he. After all their professions, is it possible to be them ? If it 
was not him, who do you imagine it to have been ? Who do you think 
him to be ? Whom do the people say that we are ? 

RULE XVIII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, meaning the same thing, 
and having the same grammatical relation, are put by apposition 
in the same case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Rule XVIII. 
I paid the money to the merchant, he that bought your house. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun he, which is in apposition with merchant, 
is in the nominative case. According to Rule 18th, " Two or more nouns, or 
nouns and pronouns, meaning the same thing, and having the same gram- 
matical relation, are put by apposition in the same case." Therefore, he 
should be him ; thus, u I paid the money to the merchant, him that bought 
your house."] 

We should fear and obey the Author of our being, even He who has 
the gower to reward or punish us forever. They brought Varus, he that 
was mentioned before. 

RULE XIX. 

A verb having two or more nominatives connected by the copulative 

and, must be of the plural form. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Rule XDL 
Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

[Not proper, because the verb removes, which is of the singular form, has 
two nominatives connected by the copulative and. According to Rule 19th, 
" A verb having two or more nominatives connected by the copulative and, must 
be of the plural form," Therefore removes should be remove; thus, " Patience 
and diligence, like faith, remove mountains."] 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. Wisdom, vir- 
tue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. In unity consists, 



112 SYNTAX. 

the welfare and security of every society. Time and tide waits for no 
man. His politeness and good disposition was, on failure of their effect, 
entirely changed. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excels 
pride and ignorance under costly attire. 

RFLE XX. 
A verb having two or more nominatives of the singular number, con- 
nected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of the singular form. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be con-ected under Rule XX* 

Neither custom nor analogy support this opinion- 

[Not proper, because the verb support is of the plural form, and therefore 
does not agree with its two nominatives, custom and analogy y taken separately. 
According to Rule 20th, " A verb having two or more nominatives of the singu- 
lar number, connected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of the singular 
form." Therefore support should be supports ; thus, "Neither custom nor 
analogy supports this opinion."] 

Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own 
hands. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move 
merely as they are moved. Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing 
that betrays inattention or ill-humor, are certainly criminal. There are 
many faults in spellings which neither analogy nor pronunciation justify. 
When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the sincerity of 
friendship is proved. 

RUL.E XXI. 

When a noun or a pronoun has no verb to agree with it y but i& 
pktced before a participle, it is in the case absolute. 

RULE XXII. 

When a direct address is made to a person or a thing, the noun or 
the pronoun representing such person or thing % is in the case inde- 
pendents 

RULE XXIII. 

A verb in the infinitive mode, or a part of a sentence^ is sometimes the 

subject of a finite verb, and therefore its nominative* 

Note I. When the sentence conveys a unity of idea, the verb must be of 
the singular number ; but when it conveys plurality of meaning, it must be 
plural. The verb must always be singular when the nominative sentences! 
or parts of sentences, are preceded bv the conjunction that, 

FALSE SYNTAX 
Examples to be corrected under JSfiote 1, Rule XXIII. 
To live soberly, righteously,, and piously,, are required of all men. 

[Not proper, because the verb are is of the plural number, and does not 
properly agree with the preceding, words, which convey a unity of idea, and 
form its nominative. According to Note 1st, Rule 23d, " When the sentence 
fonveys a unity of idm r the verb must ie of the singular number" &CU 



SYNTAX. 113 

Therefore are ought to be is; thus, u To live soberly, righteously, and piously,, 
is required of all men."] 

To do unto all men as we would that they, in similar circumstances, 
should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. From a fear 
of the world's censure, to be ashamed of the practice of precepts which 
the heart approves and embraces, mark a feeble and imperfect character. 
The erroneous opinions which we form concerning happiness and misery,, 
gives rise to all the mistaken and dangerous passions that embroils our 
life. That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies^ to 
be just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to be pious and faithful to 
Him that made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational and well-informed 
mind. To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence 
towards others, to cultivate piety towards God, is the sure means of be- 
coming peaceful and happy. The possession of our senses entire, of a 
sound understanding, of friends and companions, are often overlooked ; 
though it would be the ultimate wish of many, who, as far as we can judge, 
deserves it as much as ourselves*. 



ON THE USE OF THE MODES AND TENSES. 

Note I. In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to 
each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed. Instead of say- 
ing, " The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away," we should say, 
" The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead of, "I remember 
the family more than twenty years," it should be, "I have remembered the 
family more than twenty years." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note I., 

The next new-year's day I shall be at school three years. And he that 
was dead sat up and began to speak. I should be obliged to him if he will 
gratify me in that particular. And the multitude wondered, when they 
saw the dumb to speak, the maimed to be whole, the lame to walk, and 
the blind seeing. In the treasury belonging to the cathedral in this city, 
is preserved, with the greatest veneration, for upwards of six hundred 
years, a dish which they pretend to be made of emeralds 

Note IL All verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, 
must invariably be followed by the present tense-, and not the perfect, of 
the infinitive. 

Examples to be corrected vmder Note 2. 

I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his merit. 
It would, on reflection, have given me great satisfaction to relieve him 
from that distressed situation. It required so much care, that I thought 
I should have lost it before I reached home. We have done no more 
than it was our duty to have done. He would have assisted one of his 
friends, if he could do it without injuring the other; but as that could 
not have been done, he avoided all interference. These enemies of 
Christianity were confounded, whilst they were expecting to have 
found an opportunity to have betrayed its author. His sea-sickness, 
10* 



114 sskeume;* 

was so great, that I feared he would have died before our arrival. If 
these persons had intended to deceive, they would have taken care to 
have avoided what would expose them to the objections of their op- 
ponents. 

Note III. Some conjunctions require the indicative form of the subjunctive^ 
mode, and some the elliptical, after them. It is a good general rule, that when 
something doubtful is expressed, with an allusion. to future time, the elliptical 
form ought to be used ; as, " He will not be pardoned, unless he repent 

Examples to be corrected' under; Note 3., 
If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind, and be useless to 
others. Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply, 
unless he advances more forcible reasons*, I shall walk in the fields to- 
day, unless it rains. As the governess were present, the children be- 
haved properly. She disapproved the measure,. because it were very 
improper, Though He be high, He hath respect to the lowly. 

Note IV. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily re- 
quire the elliptical form, of the subjunctive mode; and if, with but following 
it, when futurity is denoted, also requires the elliptical form. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4. 

Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be your own. Let him 
that is sanguine take heed lest he miscarries. Take care that thou 
breakest not any of the established rules. If he does but intimate his 
desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. At the time of his 
return, if he is but expert in the business, he will find employment. If 
he do but speak to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention. If 
he be but in health, I am content. Though he do praise her, it is only 
for her beauty. If thou dost not forgive, perhaps thou wilt not be for- 
given. If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act accord- 
ingly. Unless he learns faster, he will be no scholar. Though he falls., 
he shall not be utterly cast down. On condition that he comes, I will 
consent to stay. 

Note V. The imperfect tense, and all the compound tenses of the sub- 
junctive, retain the same termination with the conjunction that they would, 
in any other mode, without it. 

This Note applies to all verbs except the neuter verb be : this verb, when in 
the subjunctive mode, varies its form from the indicative, in the imperfect as, 
well as in the present tense. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5. 

If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. Though he 
have proved his right to submission, he is too generous to exact it. Un- 
less he have improved, he is unfit for the office. If thou had succeeded, 
perhaps thou would not be the happier for it. Though thou did injure 
him, he harbors no resentment. Was he ever so great and opulent, this 
conduct would debase him. Was I to enumerate all her virtues, it would 
look like flattery. Though I was perfect, yet I would not presume. 
Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up honorably. Though, 
thou might have foreseen the danger, thou could not have avoided. it. . 



SYNTAX. 115 

Note VI. When the qualities of. different things are compared, the Tatter 
noun or pronoun is. not governed by the conjunction than or as, but agrees 
with a verb, or is governed by a verb or a preposition expressed or under- 
stood; as, " Thou art wiser than I ; " that is, " than I am."- — " They loved 
him more than me ; " that is, " more than they loved me." — " The sentiment 
is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than him;," that is,, 
" than by him." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6« 

In some respects, we have had as many advantages as them; but 
in the article of a good library, they have had a greater privilege than 
us. The undertaking was much better executed by his brother than he. 
They are much greater gainers than me by this unexpected event. They, 
know how to write as well as him ; but he is a much better grammarian* 
than them. Though she is not so learned as him, she is as much be- 
loved and respected. These people, though they possess more shining 
qualities,. are not so proud as him, nor so vain as her. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, 

To be corrected by the preceding Rides and Notes., 

Several alterations and additions have been made to the work. The 
first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second. He* 
is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his companion. 
Thou hearest the sound of the wind, but thou canst not tell whence it 
cometh, and whither it goeth. Neither has he, nor any other persons, 
suspected so much dissimulation. The court of France or England 
was to be the umpire. In the reign of Henry II. all foreign commodi- 
ties were plenty in England. There is no talent so useful towards 
success in business, or which puts men more out of the reach of ac- 
cidents, than that quality generally possessed by persons of cool tem- 
per,, and is, in common language, called discretion. The first project 
was to shorten discourse, by cutting polysyllables into one. I shall 
do all I can to persuade others- to take the same measures for their 
cure which I have. The greatest masters of critical learning differ 
among one another. Micaiah said, If thou certainly return in peace, 
then hath not the Lord spoken by me. I do not suppose, that we 
Britons want a genius more than the rest of our neighbors. The 
deaf man whose ears were opened, and his tongue loosened, doubtless 
glorified the great Physician. Groves, fields, and meadows, are, at 
any season of the year, . pleasant to look upon, but never so much as 
in the opening of the spring. The intentions of some of these phi- 
losophers, nay, of many, might, and probably were, good. It is an 
unanswerable argument of a refined age, the wonderful civilities that 
have passed between the nation of authors and that of readers. It 
was an unsuccessful undertaking, which, although it has failed, is 
no objection at all to an enterprise so well concerted. The reward 
is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter, be given to him. By 
intercourse with wise and experienced persons, who know the world, 
we may improve and rub off the rust of a private and retired educa- 
tion,. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than . knowledge. . 



116 SYNTAX. 

No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the mortification, as 
he has done to-day. The Romans gave not only the freedom of the 
city, but capacity for employments, to several towns in Gaul, Spain, 
and Germany. Such writers have no other standard on which to 
form themselves, except what chances to be fashionable and popular. 
Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and heard in the clear- 
est light. To the happiness of possessing a person of such uncom- 
mon merit, Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest 
honor his country could bestow. 

" It is well known, that the use of numerous particles is a defect of 
our language. It weakens the strength of expression." — "The traveller, 
when he stands on the banks of the Mississippi, and looks upon that 
noble river, flowing on with the power of collected waters, and bearing 
on its bosom the wealth of the surrounding region, stops to gaze on the 
scene before him, and regards it with admiration." — " The forming of a 
plan is a species of scaffolding to aid us in erecting the building." — 
"The writer should ask himself, 'What do I wish to establish? What 
is the point at which I aim ? ' And when this is seen, it never should 
be lost sight of. The necessity of this direction will at once be per- 
ceived." — " Long and short sentences should be intermingled, since 
the continuance of either for a length of time is tedious and disgusting." 
— "How much, then, does it add to the vividness of our conception of 
what the author here says, that he fixes our attention on that quality 
which he designs should be immediately in view, and on which his 
assertion is founded." — "But another inquiry on this subject has arisen ; 
' May not a writer be too perspicuous, and not leave enough to exercise 
the ingenuity and reflection of his readers ? ' " — " The nominative and 
accusative, as the agent and object, are of more importance in a sen- 
tence, than other nouns which are dependent upon them." — "But we 
now ask, ' What may be hence inferred on the part of the writer ? Do 
we not discover, that his mind has been stored with knowledge ? that 
his imagination is active and well regulated, and his heart alive to 
emotion ? ' " — " The imploring look of the beggar had asked for silver 
and gold, and Peter in his answer discovers that he fully knew the 
meaning of that look, and lets the attention first rest on that which is 
first in the mind's view." — " It would be difficult to make any alteration 
of the sentence, which would place it nearer." — " But our ennui and 
disgust, in reading their works, do not arise from the perspicuity of 
their expressions, but from their saying what had better have been 
omitted." — "But if the eulogium be excessive, and the writer indulges 
himself in praise and high commendation, an effect is often produced 
different from that designed." — " While, then, inconvenience is expe- 
rienced from the changes of language, in that it renders the authors of 
one period unintelligible at another, this evil is balanced by the intro- 
duction of more significant and harmonious words." 



PROSODY. 



Prosody consists of two parts: the former* teaches the true pronun- 
ciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone ; 
and the latter, the laws of versification. 

Accent. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a 
certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the 
rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress 
of the voice must be on the letter u, and second syllable, sume, which 
takes the accent. 

Quantity. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied 
in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel ; which 
occasions it to be slowly joined, in pronunciation, to the following letter ; 
as, fall, bale, mood, house, feature. 

A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant ; which oc- 
casions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, ant, 
bonnet, hunger. 

A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing 
it: thus mate and note should be pronounced as slowly again as mat 
and not. 

Emphasis. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, 
by which we distinguish some word, or words, on which we design to 
lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. 
Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular 
tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

Pauses. Pauses, or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation 
of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable 
space of time. 

POETRY, or VERSE. 

Poetry, or Verse, is a species of composition, made according to 
certain harmonious measures, or proportions of sound. 

Rhyme is that kind of poetry in which the terminating sound of one 
line agrees with that of another ; as, 

Go tell my son, said he, 
All thou hast heard of me. 

Blank verse, like other poetry, is measured, but does not rhyme ; as, 

All on earth is shadow ; all beyond 

Is substance : the reverse is folly's creed,. 



118 * PROSODY. 

Of Poetical Feet. 

Poetical feet, are thus called, because it is by their aid that the voice, 
as it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace ; and it is 
necessary that the syllables which mark this regular movement of the 
voice, should, in some way, be distinguished from the others. A certain 
number of syllables, connected, form afoot 

Feet are all reducible to eight kinds — four of two syllables, and four 
of three syllables, viz. 

A Trochee, — ^ A Dactyle, — ^ ^ 

An Iambus, ^ — An Amphibrach, >^ — w 

A Spondee, An Anapest, v^ ^ — 

A Pyrrhic, ^ ^ A Tribrach, w ^ ^ 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; as, 
hateful, pettish. 

Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
Bliss In vain from earth is sought. 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented ; as, 
delay, behold* 

And may at last my weary age 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, " a high tree," 
46 the pale moon." 

Sec the bold youth strain up the threat'ning steep. 

Old time brings man to his long home. 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, " on the" 
tall tree." 

In a small stream, by the side of a mountain, 
We bathed with delight. 

A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the second, and the 
third, unaccented ; as, conqueror, horrible. 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature,. 
Rise we to higher, &c. 

An Amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unaccented, and the 
middle one accented ; as, delightful, amazing. 

The piece, you say, is incorrect : why, take It v — 
I'm all submission ; what you'd have it, make it. 

An Anapest has the first syllable and the second unaccented, and the 
third accented ; as, incommode, contravene. 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway, 
And grow wiser and better, as life fades away. 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, unpardonable^ 
innumerable. 

And rolls impetuous to the plain. 



PROSODY. 119 

Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet ; as pieces of 
poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the 
trochee, iambus, dactyle, and anapest. They are capable, also, of numer- 
ous variations by mixing them with each other, and by the admission 
of the secondary feet. The spondee, pyrrhic, amphibrach, and tribrach, 
are secondary feet 

Measure, in poetry, is the rhythm of language, arising from a prescribed 
arrangement of long syllables and short ones. The measures that are 
most in use, are those of ten, eight, and seven syllables ; but the iambic, 
trochaic, and anapestic verse, is sometimes very short, and sometimes 
long measure. 



DIRECTIONS RESPECTING THE USE OF 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Capitals are used in the following situations : — 

1. At the beginning of every principal word in the titles of books, 
chapters, &c. ; as, " Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language ; " 
" Rollin's Ancient History." 

2. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other 
piece of writing. 

3. The beginning of the first word after a period ; and, if the two sen- 
tences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclama- 
tion. But, if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are 
thrown into one general group, or if the construction of the latter sen- 
tence depends on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with 
small letters ; as, " How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ? and 
the scorners delight in their scorning ? and fools hate knowledge ? " 
" Alas ! how different I yet how like the same ! " 

4. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a semicolon, or 
when it is in a direct form ; as, " Always remember this maxim ; 
* Know thyself.' " 

5. The pronoun J, and the interjection O, must always be capitals ; as, 
" I write ; " " Hear, O earth." 

6. At the beginning of every line in poetry. 

7. All names, epithets, or qualities of our Creator, are always begun, 
if not wholly written, with capitals ; as, " God, Lord, Supreme Being, 
Almighty, Most High, Divine Providence." The word Heaven must 
always begin with a capital when used as the name of the King of 
heaven ; as, " May Heaven prosper you." But when it is used as the 
name of the abode of the blessed, it may begin with a small letter, except 
at the beginning of a sentence ; as, " the angels of heaven ; " " the Lord of 
heaven and earth." 

8. All proper names, of whatever description, must begin with capitals ; 
of persons, heathen gods and goddesses, brutes, the planets,* towns, 
streets, islands, mountains, rivers, ships, seas, oceans, &c. ; as, " Benjamin 
Franklin ; Sir Isaac Newton ; the Alleghany Mountains ; the Ohio 

* Earth excepted. 



120 PUNCTUATION. 

River ; Lake Superior ; the Red Sea ; the Frigate Guerriere ; "—also all 
adjectives derived from proper names ; as, " the Newtonian System ; Gre- 
cian, Roman, American, French, Italian," &c. 

9. All titles of honor, professions, and callings of men, particularly 
when an address is made, ought to begin with capitals ; as, " President, 
Governor, General, Judge, Esquire, Mr." &c. ; — also all qualities used as 
titles of men ; as, " Honorable, Reverend," &e. 

10. Capitals are always used to begin the names of all courts, societies, 
and public bodies of men ; as, " Congress, the General Assembly, the 
Supreme Judicial Court, the Court of Common Pleas, the Humane So- 
ciety, the Corporation," &c. 

11. The names of all religious sects and denominations are begun with 
capitals ; as, " Episcopalians, Baptists, Friends," &c. 

12. Capitals are always used to begin the names of months and the days 
of the week; as, "January, February," &c, " Monday, Tuesday," &c. ; 
— also all public days ; as, " a Public Thanksgiving, a Solemn Fast," &c. 

13. The names of all articles of commerce, when entered in mer- 
chants' books, advertisements, &c, should begin with capitals ; as, " Lin- 
en, Cotton, Silk, Rum, Sugar, Tea," &c. ; — also all sums of money speci- 
fied in notes, bonds, &c. ; as, " Ten Dollars and Seventy -five Cents." 

14. Very emphatical words are frequently begun, and sometimes wholly 
written, in capitals. 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though 
very closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause be- 
tween them. 

Rule 1. The several words which compose a simple sentence, have 
in general so near a relation to each other, that no points are requisite, 
except a full stop at the end of it. But when the simple sentence is a 
long one, and the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable ad- 
juncts, a comma should be inserted immediately before the verb. 

Rule 2. When the connection of the different parts of a simple sen- 
tence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually placed 
at the beginning and at the end of such phrase. 

Rule 3. When two or more nouns, two or more adjectives, two or 
more verbs, or participles, or adverbs, occur in the same grammati- 
cal construction, they are separated from each other by a comma ; but 
when they are closely connected by a conjunction, the comma should 
not be inserted. 

Rule 4. Words used in the case independent, the case absolute, and 
the infinitive mode absolute, are separated from the body of the sentence 
by a comma. 
Rule 5. Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, 



PUNCTUATION. 121 

are, for the most part, separated by commas. If the members are short, 
the comma is unnecessary. 

Rule 6. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with 
some marked variety, they should be distinguished by a comma. Such 
sentences are called antithetical. 

Rule 7. Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally 
admit a comma before them ; but when two members or phrases are 
closely connected by a relative, restraining the general notion of the 
antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted. The 
whole of this rule applies, when the relative is understood, as well as 
when expressed. 

Rule 8. A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, 
or following another, must be distinguished by a comma. If, however, 
the members succeeding each other are very closely connected, the 
comma is unnecessary. When a verb in the infinitive mode follows the 
verb on which it depends, with several words between them, those 
words should generally have a comma at the end of them. Several 
verbs in the infinitive mode, having a common dependence, and suc- 
ceeding one another, are also divided by commas. 

Rule 9. When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive 
mode, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative, the verb 
to be is separated from the following verb by a comma. 

Rule 10. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be proper- 
ly introduced. 

Rule 11. The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, 
and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be 
separated from the context by a comma. 



SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or 
more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a 
comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other as those which are 
distinguished by a colon. 

COLON. 

[This point is not so much used as formerly.] 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less 
connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, but not so in- 
dependent as separate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be applied in the three following cases : — 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by 
some explanatory remark. 

2. When a semicolon, or more than one, have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the concluding sentiment, 
and show its relation to the first. 

3. The colon is generally used when an example, a quotation, or 
speech, is introduced ; as, " The Scriptures give us an amiable represen- 
tation of the Deitv, in these words : * God is love.' " 

11 



122 PUNCTUATION. 



PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete, and not connected in construction with 
the following sentence, it is marked with a period. 

The period should be used, also, after every abbreviated word; as, 
«M. S.— P. S.—N. B.— A. D.— O. S.—N. S. w &c. 



The Point of Interrogation [ ? ] is used when a question is asked. The 
Exclamation [ ! ] is used when some sudden emotion of surprise, joy, 
griefj &c, is expressed. The Parentheses [()] are used when some 
necessary information or useful remark (which may be admitted without 
injuring the grammatical construction) is introduced into the body of the 
sentence obliquely ; as, 

" Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in com- 
position, which may be explained in this place, viz. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus, ■ is used to abbreviate or shorten a 
word ; as, His, for it is ; tho\ for though ; e'en, for even ; judged, for judg- 
ed. Its chief use is to show the possessive case of nouns; as, "A man's 
property ; a woman's ornament." 

A Caret, marked thus A is placed where some word or phrase, left 
but in writing, is inserted over the line. 

A Hyphen, marked thus, - is employed in connecting compounded 
words; as, tap-dog, tea-pot, pre-exislence, self-love, to-merroiv, mother- 
in-law. 

A Quotation u ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at the 
beginning of a phrase or a passage which i3 quoted or transcribed from 
the speaker or author in his own words ; and two commas in their direct 
position are placed at the conclusion ; as, 

"The proper study of mankind is man." 



APPENDIX. 

To explain such idioms and abstruse constructions of the English language, as could 
not, consistently with the design of the preceding - compilation, be given in its pages, is 
the object of the writer, in presenting the following Appendix. Separate from the intro- 
ductory lessons, the explanations and critical remarks which it contains may be referred 
to, without creating that " confusion and embarrassment which must inevitably result 
from presenting to young minds, exceptions to rules, before the rules themselves are 
fully understood." 

As far as his limits would permit, he has given the terms, and - explained the modes of 
analysis, adopted by other writers, who claim to have improved on the labors of their 
predecessors > that the student may be able to judge for himself as to their comparative 
merits. He trusts that what he has thus presented will be found both interesting and 
useful 5 especially to persons who have not an opportunity to examine the various 
works to which he has referred. 



APPENDIX. 



Owinq to the irregularities of the language, it is exceedingly difficult, and perhaps impossible, 
to present definitions to which no objections can be urged, or rules to which there are no excep- 
tions. That such is the fact, is evident from the want of success which has attended the attempts 
that have, within the last half century, been made to improve those in general use. It should 
be remembered, that the terms us«d to elucidate the principles of English grammar are chosen for 
their fitness to represent the general character and office of the seveial parts of speech and their 
properties : their being sometimes employed for other purposes, (since, when properly explained, 
such use creates no embarrassment to the student,) does not affect their usefulness. For in- 
stance, a certain form of the verb (or form of expression) is said to be in the " indicative mode," 
because, when united with its nominative, it is used " to indicate or dec' are an action or event ;" 
yet, the same form is sometimes used " in asfcing questions." Another form of the verb (or form 
of expression) is said to be in the "imperative mode," because it is used for " commanding {" 
yet, the same terms, without producing the least confusion, are applied to the verb when it is used 
for a very different purpose— that of entreating. Nor can we avoid thus using these terms, 
without presenting as many modes as there are different forms of expression. 

OF NOUNS, &c 

A Noun is the same of any tiling which we can see, taste, hear, smell, feel, or conceive of. 
The term noun, thus defined, is believed to be unexceptionable. Concerning this part of speech, 
the celebrated Home Tooke says, 

"Of the first part of speech— the noun— it being the best understood, and, therefore, the 
most spoken of by others, I shall need at present to say little more than that it is 'the simple or 
complex, the particular or general, sign or name of oue or more ideas.' " * Diversions ofPurley, 
pt. i., c. iv. 

Definitions of the Term Noun given by eminent Lexicograpliers. 
u Noun , in grammar ; the first part in speech, denoting the name of a thing." Bailey, 
U Noun, (L. nomen;) the name of any thing, in grammar." Johnson. 

" Noun, (L. nomen ;) in grammar , a name ; that sound, or combination of sounds, by which & 
thing is called, whether material or immaterial. 1 ' Webster. 

"Noun, (Fr. nom ; Ital. nome ; Sp.nambrt; Lat. nomen; Gi.Svoua;) a name," Richardson. 
" Noun, in grammar j the name of any thing." Worcester. 

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS, &c. 

1. Grammarians generally agree with Murray in ascribing to nouns four different properties — 
person, number, gender, and case. Some, however, differ from him as to the number of second- 
ary distinctions necessary to be made in explaining these properties. 

OF PERSON. 

Though all writers on grammar agree that a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, (or, of a 
substitute for a noun ;) that the words /, thou, he, are personal pronouns ; sod, that this class of 
pronouns have three persons — the first, the second, and the third ; yet, some teach that nouns 
have but two persons — the second and the third ; (and some deny that they have, properly, even 
two/) If this doctrine is correct, it follows, either that pronouns do not necessarily agree with 
the nouns which they represent in person, or, that / is not a pronoun, and, that a substitute may 
have a quality which its principal does not possess ! Such writers teach that, although, in the 
sentence " I, Paul, am a prisoner," /is of the first person, yet, Paid is of the third ; because, say 
they, we cannot say, " Paul am." It is true we cannot, with propriety, make use of this ex- 

• This remark h;is reference to the several classes into which nouns are divided, rii. common, proper, collective, 
participial, and abstract. [For definitions, see pa»es 28 and 65 of the preceding 1 w»rk.] Abstract nouns are those 
which express abstract ideas, without reg-jxrdiny any subject in which the qualities they represent exist; as, beauty, 
tvhiteneee, roundneti ; (the emotions of the soul.) love, pleasure, joy, fear, envy, haired, pain, grief, pity, die- 
tire. *p. 



124 APPENDIX. 

pression ; nor can we say, " you is," though the pronoun is used with reference to one individual. 
And why? Simply because this form of expression is uot an established idiom of the language.* 
Again — it may be asked, "Of what person was the noun before pronouns were invented — 
when, in order to make himself understood, it was necessary for the speaker to pronounce hia 
name % and point to himself \ as,f " Moses (J^$) wants bread " ? 

OF GENDER. 

While Murray, and most of the early writers on English grammar, teach that there are but 
three genders, some, who claim to have improved on their labors, say, that there are four t 
adding (to the masculine, feminine, and neuter,) a common gender, which is thus defined : — " A 
noun that denotes either a male or a female (or both males and females) is said to be of the common 
gender j as, parent, friend, child, &c." In relation to this distinction, Murray says, " The words 
parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, servant, and several others, are used indifferently for males 
or females. These words cannot properly be said to denote a distinct species of gender, as 
some writers on English grammar have asserted, and who have denominated them to be of the 
common gender. There is no such gender belonging lo the language^ The business of parsing 
can be effectually performed without having recourse to a common gender." 

Gender, says Dr. Jamieson, another peculiarity of nou»s, in the grammatical structure of 
language, arises out of the di£Ferenee of sex, discernible only in animals. It will, therefore, admit 
©f two varieties,. — the masculine and feminine genders, — agreeably to the distinction of living 
creatures into male and female. All other nouns ought to belong to what grammarians call the 
neuter gender, which is a negation of the other two. Jamieson's Rhetoric. 

The following extract from a late work (on English grammar) which advocates the common 
gender, shows that the application of this distinction to the class of nouns referred to, tends to 
perplex, rather than to aid, the student : — 

" The little child, when he begins to talk, does not speak very correctly." 

As the pronoun he is of the masculine gender, if the noun child is of the common gender, (as the 
definition of this gender declares it to be,) the pronoun does not agree with the noun for which it 
stands in gender! How, then, it may be asked, is the gender of child, and kindred nounSj to be 
ascertained , ? Answer, (as that of all nouns and pronouns which are equally applicable to both 
sexes is to be determined,) By the context. 

An advocate of the common gender says, 

"As there is no personal pronoun of common gender in [of] the third person singular, [pronouns 
of] the other genders are made to supply its place j [i. e. supply the place of a nonentity!] [supply 
the deficiency ;} as, 

* Doth the hawk stretch forth her wings ? ? " 

Though the writer admits that the pronoun her, which stands for the noun hawk, is of the femi- 
nine gender, the student is required, in parsing, to say that hawk is of the common gender ! Can 
stronger evidence be required of the soundness of Murray's opinion, " that there is no such gender 
(as the common gender) belonging to the language " ? Has not this writer clearly shown, that such 
a distinction a3 " common gender " cannot be made in English nouns, without violating that funda- 
mental law of all languages, which requires that " pronouns should agree with the nouns for which 
they stand ia gender " t 

GOOD USE THE SOLE MISTRESS OF LANGUAGE 

Language, says an eminent rhetorician, is mainly a species of fashion, % in which, by the gen- 
eral but tacit consent of the people of a particular state or country, certain sounds come to 
be appropriated to certain things, as their signs, and certain ways of inflecting and combining 
those sounds come to be established, as denoting the relations which subsist among the things 
signified. 

The philosophical view which we have taken of the chief principles and component parts of 
speech, show us plainly it is not the business of grammar to give law to the fashions which regu- 
late our speech. From its conformity to these it derives its authority and value. 

Grammar, therefore, is nothing else than a collection of general observations, methodically di- 

* "The pronouns of the first and second persons are often prefixed to nouns merely to distinguish their person. In 
this case of apposition, the words are not separated by a comma ; as, ' I John saw these things. - 

1 * ' r . ■' Brown's Grammar. 

** I John was in the isle of Patmos." The person speaking is called the first person, and i" is the pronoun of the 
first person. When, as in the sentence preceding, the speaker uses his own name along with this pronoun, the namt 
is also said to be of the first person. In the sentence, " I John, the apostle, was in the isle of Patmos, aposUe » 
also of the first person. These three words, J, John, and apostle, mean the same person, viz. the speaker. 

" r Barnard's Grammar. 

t When two persons, unknown to each other, met, one could not properly address the other, nor explain himself by 
his own name ; and, finding- names not sufficient to answer the purpose, the speaker adopted the expedient of inrf*- 
cation, or pointing with the fineer or hand. But the authors ot language, not satisfied with this, invented a claw 
of words called pronouns, to supply pat only this minting^ but to stand for nouns, in order to remove the tediousness 
8,6d indecorum of being obliged to name ourselves, often by our proper- namts. These pronouns are divided into 
three sorts, viz. pronouns of the first person, of the second, and of the third. > _ 

1. The pronoun of the first person, I, was introduced to supply the place of pointing, and the name of the speaker; 
as, " I read, I hear," &c. , , . . . , ., 

2. To avoid pointing., and too frequent a repetition of the name of the person addressed, thou, the pronoun of tht 
second person, was invented j as, " Thou reades.t, thou hearest," &c, ...... u« . 

3. Whep neither the speaker nor the person addressed was the subject of discourse, but some third object, or objects, 
to avoid too frequent a repetition of the names ojt person* and things, the Pronouns, of the third person were invent* 
ed-Ae, she, it, be, ' r m*& GtWVtWx 

% Campbell, Phil, of Rhet. b, ii, s c, 1, 



APPENDIX. 125 

OF CASE. 

2. Some writers on grammar reject the term nominative as applied to ease, and substitute, as 
they contend, the more appropriate term subjective. In parsing the sentence " He writes letters," 
instead of saying that the word denoting the agent or actor, is in the nominative case to the verb 
(writes) which expresses the action, they say it is in the subjective case. But it will be seen that 
the use of the term subjective for nominative, except when applied to the subject of a passive 
or a neuter verb, is not only unauthorized by good use, but, that it is a misapplication of the term 
as it is defined in standard works on language. 

The term nominative is employed to designate the first case in English grammar, by Bailey, 
Johnson, Webster, Worcester, and other lexicographers; and by Blair, John Gtuincy Adams, 
Jamieson, Newman, and other rhetoricians. 

The terms subject and subjective, applied to grammar, are thus defined : — 

" Subject, in grammar ; the nominative case to a verb passive.'* Webster. 

it q!!!!*~~^ V c . ! to Drin g or reduce under the rule, order, or government." Richardson. 

OUBJECTI V£ y \ 

Johnson gives no definition of these words, as used in grammar, but quotes from Clark, an emi- 
nent scholar of the preceding century, the following remark, in which both terms (nominative and 
subject) are used ; the latter, however, in the sense given in the preceding definitions. In ac- 
cordance with the legitimate meaning of the word, the term subject is employed by the first rheto- 
ricians of the age, to designate, not the agent, but the object of a transitive verb. 

" Subject. The nominative -case to a verb is called by grammarians the subject of the verb." 

Clark. 

"The arrangement of the agent, the action, and the subject, the chief ingredient in all 
members, sentences, and periods, is almost invariable. The agent appears first; the action suc- 
ceeds, (in natural order;) and the subject, if there be one, takes its station last. 1 '' Jamieson'* 
Rhetoric, p. 88. 

PARSING. 

"To Parse, [L. pars,] in grammar; to resolve a sentence into its elements, or to 9how the 
several parts of speech composing a sentence, and their relation to each other by government or 
agreement." Webster. 

The great object of this exercise is to familiarize the student with the principles of the science, 
and, by exercising his judgment, to impress them on his memory. A correct, and, so far as it is 
practicable, a distinct, classification of the various constructions of which the language is com- 
posed, would, therefore, seem to be indispensable to his success. Some lite compilers, however, 
do not appear to think such a classification necessary ; and, under the pretence of simplifying the 
science, (as if it could be simplified by keeping out of sight important distinctions,) they have not 
scrupled to class under the same head, and to designate by the same tenrn, forms of construction 
totally different in their nature. 

For instance, words used in the case independent; a?, " Boys, study your lessons ; " — exclam- 
atory words or phrases; as, "Oh, horrors!" iC 0'i, the folly of sinners!" — and words used > 1st, 
as the titles of books, or the parts into which they are divided; as, " Murray's Grammar ; " 
"Third Part. . ..Syntax ; " 2d, as the caption of ai tides ; as, "Niagara, by John Neal, 
Portland, Maine ; " — names affixed to articles to denote their authors ; as, " Milton," "Gold- 
smith;" — though different, in their nature and office, are alike parsed in the case absolute! 
These words are not in the case absolute. Words and phrases thus used are contractions of sen- 
tences, authorized by custom for the sake of convenience — exceptions to the rules of construction. 

gested, and comprising all the modes previously and independently established, by which the 
significations, derivations, and combinations of words in that language are ascertained. For these 
modes and fashions have no sooner obtained, and become general, than they are the laws of the 
language ; and the grammarian's only business is to note, collect, and methodize them. Thia 
truth concerns alike those comprehensive analogies and rules which affect whole classes of words, 
and every individual word, in the inflecting or combining of which a particular mode hath pre- 
vailed. Hence every single anomaly, though departing from the rule assigned to the other words 
of the same class, and on that account called an exception, stands on the same basis on which 
the rules of the tongue are founded, custom having prescribed for it a separate rule. 

In every grammatical controversy, we are consequently, as a last resort, entitled to appeal 
from the laws and the decisions of the grammarians to the tribunal of use, as to the supreme author- 
ity. The conduct of our ablest grammarians proves that this order of subordination ought never, 
on any account, to be reversed. 

We have acknowledged language to be a species of fashion or mode, as doubtless it is ; yet, 
being much more permanent than those things to which the words fashionable and modish are ap- 
plied, the former phrases are not meant to convey the ideas of novelty and levity, but recur to 
the standard already assigned — the writings of a plurality of celebrated authors. Thus have we 
established, as general principles, 

I. That Use is the sole mistress of language. 
II. That her essential attributes are reputable, national, and present. 

III. That Grammar and Criticism are but her ministers ; and, though, like other ministers, 
they would sometimes impose upon the people the dictates of their own humor as the commands 
of their sovereign, they are not so often successful in such attempts as to encourage the frequent 
repetition of them. Jamieson'' s Rhetoric. 
11* 



126 APPENDIX. 

A word used in the ca3e absolute is placed before a participle, independent of every thing eke; as, 
" No friend being here, I sit and weep." 

Though this mode of simplifying the science of grammar may find advocates among the few, 
who are satisfied with being able to parse by rote, (being assured that, on this labor-saving plan, 
there are fewer distinctions to be remembered, though exceptions to rules are, in reality, thereby 
multiplied,) it is believed, that it will be thought by the many who love to think, to savor more of 
empiricism than of science. 

The elliptical examples cited in the preceding paragraphs may be thus explained : — 

1st. [" This work is] Murray's Grammar ; " [" The] Third Part [of Murray's Grammar 
treats of] Syntax." 

2d. [" The following poem, which is descriptive of the Battle of] Niagara, [was written] 
by John* Neal, [who is a resident of the city of] Portland, [which is situated in the State of J 
Maine." 

3d. [" The preceding poem," or " extract, was written by] Milton." 

Some late simplifiers appear to be more solicitous to devise an easy way of parsing, (as if 
this exercise were the sole aim and end of the study of grammar,) than to enable their pupils to 
ascertain an author's meaning, or to distinguish what good use has sanctioned, from false syntax. 
Hence, what cannot be brought under some favorite rule, is, by them, at once disposed of under 
the name of some unauthorized combination ; as, " conjunctional phrase,*' " prepositional phrase," 
&c. In this manner are their pupils taught to parse the words " as if," " from below," &x. 
Such teaching as this is surely worse than useless. The words " as if" never form a phrase* 
and to parse them as such will destroy the sense of any passage in which these words are used. 

When certain individuals have a common character, or predominant qualities which form a 
similitude between them, this common character becomes in the mind a species; and the proper 
name of an individual possessing this character admits of the articles, adjectives, pronouns, &c, 
and of the plural form, like a common name. Thus, " a conspirator is called a Catiline, and a 
number of them Catilines, or the Catilines of their country."* " Alas ! no Howard came to re- 
lieve their sufferings." 

" Some village Hampden, that, with dauntless breast, 
The little tyrant of his fields withstood ; 
Some mute, inglorious Milton, here may rest ; 
Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood." 

OF ADJECTIVES, &c. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or a pronoun, to express some quality of, or circum- 
stance respecting, the person or the thing, for which the noun or the pronoun stands. 

"Adjectives, or terms of quality, such as great, little, black, white, are the plainest and sim- 
plest of all that class of words which are termed attributive." Jamicson's Rhetoric, p. 42. 

" To avoid ambiguity in the use of the adjective, let it be placed as near as practicable to the 
noun it is intended to qualify." Newman's Rhetoric, p. 131. 

"Adjective, (adjectif, F., adjectivum, L. ;) a word added to a noun substantive, to denote 
some property of it." Bailey. 

" Adjective, (adjectivum, Lat. ;) a word added to a noun to signify the addition or separation 
of some quality, circumstance, or manner of being ; as, good, bad." Johnson. 

" Adjective, n. 5 in grammar; a word used with a noun, to express a quality of the thing 
named, or something attributed to it, or to limit or define it, or to specify or describe a thing as 
distinct from something else." Webster. 

"The name adjective has been applied even to those words which signify substance, 
when, by their manner of signifying, they are to be joined to other nouns in discourse." Port 
Royal Cham. Richardson. 

"Adjective is a word added to a noun to express some quality j as, good, bad, &c." 

Worcester. 

" Anglo-Saxon adjectives have variable terminations to correspond with their nouns." 

Bosworth's Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language, London, 1838. 

The term adjective is now in general use. Some grammaiians, however, reject it, and use in 
its stead, adnoun, attributive, definitive, &c. 

1. Grammarians, generally, have assigned to adjectives three degrees of comparison — the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative ; but " the first of them," says Mr. Murray, " has 
been thought by some writers to be improperly termed a degree of comparison." This objection 
has been revived by some late pretenders to improvements ; but, when, as that eminent philologist 
suggests, we consider that this form of the adjective (the positive) is supposed to imply comparison 
or degree, by containing a general reference to other things, — as, when we say, " He is a toHman,"' 
"This is aJJneday," we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different 
weather, — the objection does not appear to be well founded. 

2. It is the opinion of Webster, that some adjectives admit of four degrees ©f comparison. He 
says, 

" There are, therefore, four degrees of comparison. The first denotes a slight degree of the 

quality, and is expressed by the termination ish ; as, reddish, brownish, yellowish. This may be 

denominated the imperfect degree." His classification of the other degrees is similar to that of 

Murray. 

■ » ''■■.■■ 1 ■ . ■ ■ 1 ■ ii ' < 

* Webster. 



APPENDIX. 127 

3. Numeral adjectives are sometimes U9ed as nouns j as, " I will not destroy the city for ten's 
lake." 

4. Adjectives, preceded by tlie definite article, are frequently used as nouns; and, when thu9 
used, they are, generally, of "the plural number ; as, " The vain, the wealthy, and the proud." 

" The great, the gay, shall they partake 
The heaven that thou alone canst make ? " Cowper. 

5. The words which constitute the several classes of adjective pronouns, (and all words of a 
similar character,) when not prefixed to other words, are pronouns. 

6. Words which express the state or the quality of things, are sometimes erroneously supposed 
to modify verbs ; as, " The apples boil [become] soft ; " " The package arrived safe," [not safely.] 
Soft shows the state of the apples, and safe that of the package ; therefore, these words are not 
adverbs, but adjectives. 

7. In some cases, adjectives appear to sustain a twofold relation to other words ;— to modify the 
actions of verbs, as well as to express the state of things ; as, " Open thine hand wide." Bible. 
" Bray, to grind small." Johnson's Diet. 

8. When an adjective is necessarily plural, the noun to which it belongs must be of the plural 
form ; as, " Fifty pounds of wheat contain forty pounds of flour." 

The following, and similar colloquial phrases, are exceptions to this rule : — "a hundred head 
of cattle j " " twenty sail of vessels." 

SECONDARY ADJECTIVES. 

As the name applied to a class of words should indicate the relation in which they stand to 
Other words, those which depend on verbs are properly denominated auxiliary, helping, or sec- 
ondary verbs ; and, with equal propriety, may words which depend on adjectives be called auxil- 
iary or secondary adjectives.* And as principal verbs may be used as secondaries to other verbs, 
so may principal adjectives be used as secondaries to other adjectives. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

An umbrella. 

A . . silk umbrella. 

A brown silk umbrella. 

A dark brown silk umbrella. 

A veryf dark brown silk umbrella. 

Solution. — Very is a secondary of the third order, (third remove from the adjective,) depending 
on dark; dark is a secondary of the second order, depending on brown ; brown is a secondary of the 
first order, depending on silk ; silk is an adjective, and belongs to umbrella; according to Rule 1. 

OF ARTICLES. 

An Article is a word prefixed to nouns and pronouns to limit their signification. 

Articles are little words prefixed to nouns, or to other parts of speech used as nouns, to en- 
large or circumscribe their meaning : — 1. The article a is called indefinite, because it refers the 
object, to the name of which it is prefixed, to its species only, and denotes our conceptions of it 
no farther than the common qualities of the species extend. 2. The article the is called definite, 
because it discriminates the object, to the name of which it is prefixed, from all others of the 
same species, and denotes our previous acquaintance with it, or its own particular characteristics. 

Jamieson's Rhetoric. 

Article, in grammar, a part of speech ; as, a and the. Johnson. 

1. The term article, in grammar, is generally applied to a or an and tlie, as exemplified in the 
preceding definition. Some writers, however, include under this term the demonstrative pronoun 
that, and kindred words, because, as they say, these words are sometimes used to distinguish 
some particular thing or things from others of their kind. This, to some extent, is true 3 yet the 
demonstrative that and the definite the do not make the distinction precisely in the same way. If 
they did, says a discriminating writer, one of them would be sufficient. This and these (when 
used as adjectives) distinguish things comparatively near ; that and those, things comparatively 
distant. The distinguishes things well known or previously mentioned. Besides, there is another 
difference in the use of these words, which fully justifies a separate classification of them. While 
the demonstrative that frequently stands alone, and is to all intents a pronoun, the definite the 
cannot be so used. It always depends on another word ; and, on this account, the latter cannot, 
with propriety, be considered of the same species as the former. 

Examples of the use of that as a pronoun : — 

" The cloak of honor covers all their faults, as that of passion all their follies." Murray. 

• Some adjectives are used to modify the sense of others and of participles ; as, "a very clear dav ; " "red h»t 
iron; " " a more or most excellent character." In these expressions, the last adjective belongs more immediately to 
the noun expressing its quality ; and the first adjective qualifies the second, &c. Webster's Grammar. 

t Exercises of this kind may be extended at pleasure. Care must be taken, however, to distinguish between the 
adjective and the secondary — between a word which belongs to the noun, and one which depends on an adjective, or on 
another secondary. Example: "A quite new, brown silk umbrella." It will be seen that quite here depends on new, 
that new belongs to umbrella; and that brown depend* on the adjective silk, a« in the preceding exercise. 



128 APPENDIX. 

" The habits of instruction are not familiar to me ; and they constitute an art of little less dif- 
ficulty and delicacy than that of oratory itself.' 5 Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory ', by John Qttincy 
Adams, p. 28. 

" Equally proper and necessary will it be to separate in our minds the science of rhetoric, or of 
speaking well, from that of grammar, or the science of speaking correctly." Idem. 

2. Some writers are of the opinion that the indefinite article a, and the indefinite pronoun any, 
belong to the same part of speech. But it is believed that the difference which exists in the mean- 
ing of these words fully justifies the usual classification. The article a always signifies one, 
which is not true of any. The former cannot be used disconnected from the word to which it 
refers ; but the latter is an established idiom of the language ; as, " I have no paper. Have you 
any ? " — " What is the neics 1" "I have not heard any." 

3. When adjectives are connected, and the qualities belong to things individually different, 
though of the s.ime name, the article should be repeated ; as, " a black and a white horse." Eut 
when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated; as, 
" a black and white horse." Brown's Grammar. 

4. u j9 becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent h ; as, " an acorn," " an hour." But, if the 
h is sounded, the a only is used ; as, " a hand," " a heart ; " except when the word before which 
the article is placed has its accent on the second syllable ; as, " an heroic action," " an historical 
account." Productive Grammar, p. 47. 

OF VERBS, &c. 

A Verb is a word which (when connected with its nominative) signifies action, being, or suf- 
fering, or makes an assertion; as, " I write;" "He teas ;" "The rogue was punished}" "I 
have a book ; " " You own a farm." 

" Verb, (verbum, Lat. ;) in grammar ; one of the parts of speech, — which signifies doing, suffer- 
ing, or being, in the thing or person denoted by the word with which it is joined." Bailey. 

" Verb, (verbc, Fr. ; verbum, Lat. ;) a part of speech signifying existence, or some modification 
thereof, as action, passion ; and withal some disposition or intention of the mind relating thereto, 
as of affirming, denying, interrogation, commanding. Clark." Johnson. 

"Verb, (Lat. verbum ; Fr. verbc ; Sp. verbo ; Ir. fearb ;) in grammar; a part of speech that 
expresses action, motion, being, suffering, or a request or command to do or forbear any thing." 

Webster. 

"And this is what is properly called a verb ; a word whose principal use is to signify the affirma- 
tion ; that is, to show that the discourse in which this word is used, is the discourse of a man 
who not only has a conception of things, but moreover judges and affirms something of them." 

Port Royal Grammar. — Richardson. 

1. In accordance with the preceding definitions, grammarians generally divide the verbs of the 
English language into three general classes: — 1st, the active; 2d, the neuter; 3d, the passive; 
the first class being subdivided into transitive and intransitive, according to the signification of 
these terms. Some writers on grammar, however, under the pretence of simplifying the science, 
make but two classes, which they denominate the transitive and intransitive. Under the former 
term they include all verbs which affect, or may affect, an object ; as, " The boy studies his les- 
son;" under the latter, all other verbs — classing verbs which express the highest degree of ac- 
tion, as, run, dance, gallop, labor, with those which denote being, or a state of being without 
action, as, am, art, is, are, &c. This classification is very objectionable, especially in an ele- 
mentary work. The young cannot be expected to see the propriety of calling by the same name 
verbs so different in their nature and use ; and the confusion and perplexity thus occasioned must, 
inevitably, not only retard their advancement in the study, but create in their minds a lasting dis- 
relish for it. 

2. Mr. Webster* says truly, " The young learner cannot easily conceive why such verbs (to 
run, to walk, to flu,) are not called active;" nor will he more easily conceive why these verbs 
are classed with the verb be and its variations, am, art, is, are, &.C., which do not express action. 
The neuter verb be or am is the most irregular verb in the language, and, consequently, the most 
difficult to be understood ; and, under this unnatural and confused classification, it is believed to 
be impracticable for the pupil to obtain so thorough a knowledge of it and its variations as is in- 
dispensable to a proper understanding of the passive verb. Besides, such a classification is not in 
accordance with the meaning of the term intransitive, as it is defined by our standard writers on 
language. This term implies action, (confined to the agent ;) it, therefore, cannot properly be 
applied to a neuter verb. 

"Active verbs are subdivided into transitive and intransitive. In the former, the action passes, 
transit; — the latter denotes action which does not pass from the agent towards any thing else $ 
as, * I walk.' Beattie." Richardson. 

" Intransitive, (intransitivus, Lat.) In grammar, an intransitive verb is one which expresses 
•an action or state that is limited to the agent ; or, in other words, an action that does not pass over 
to, or operate upon, any object." Webster. 

3. The passive form of the verb, in English, is composed of certain auxiliaries and participles 

• "The common distribution into active, neuter, and passive, is very objectionable. Many of our neuter [intran- 
sitive] v&rbs imply action in a pre-eminent degree, as, to run, to walk, to fly ; and the young learner cannot easily 
conceive why such verbs are not called active. '" Webster's Grammar. 

It is admitted that the distribution h?re mentioned is partial and unsatisfactory ; but modern •writers on the science 
have obvhted the objection urged against it, by subdividing active verbs into transitive and intransitive; — an improve- 
ment which renders the scheme consistent, and facilitates the advancement of the student. 



APPENDIX. 129 

with the verb be. It denotes passion or suffering ; that is, the subject of the affirmation, or nom- 
inative, is affected by the action affirmed; as, "John is convinced ;" "Laura is loved and ad- 
mired." In this form of the verb, the agent and object change places. In the transitive form, 
the agent precedes the verb, and the object follows ; as, " John has convinced Moses." In the 
passive form, the order is changed, and the agent follows the verb, preceded by a preposition ; as, 
" Moses is convinced by John." Webster's Grammar. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, &c. 

4. Having noticed the different opinions, entertained by the most approved writers on grammar, 
respecting the English subjunctive mode, Mr. Murray mentions another, of which he says, " This 
opinion admits the arrangement we have given, with one variation, namely, that of assigning to 
the first tense of the subjunctive two forms : — 1st, that which simply denotes contingency ; as, 
1 If he desires it, I will perform the operation ; ' that is, ' If he now desires it ; ' — 2d, that which 
denotes both contingency and futurity ; as, ' If he desire it, I will perform the operation ; ' that 
is, 'If he should hereafter desire it.' This last theory of the subjunctive mode claims the merit 
of rendering the whole system of the modes consistent and regular; of being more conformable 
than any other to the definition of the subjunctive ; and of not referring to the indicative mc le 
forms of expression which ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhaps this* theory will 
bear a strict examination. 

" Some critics assert, that, as this phrase, ' If he desire it,' has a future signification, it should 
be considered and arranged as a future tense. But, as all our grammarians concur in classing this 
form of expression under the present tense ; as it nearly resembles the form of this tense, and ap- 
pears to be closely connected with it ; ami as no possible inconvenience can arise from adbering to 
general usage, when the subject is well explained, we think that the present arrangement is per- 
fectly justifiable. There is certainly no more impropriety in arranging phrases of this nature 
under the present tense, than there is in classing the following modes of expression with that 
tense: — ' When he arrives, he will hear the news ;' 'Before he decides, he should examine the 
case;' 'The more she improves, the more amiable she will be.' These forms of expression 
clearly refer to future time, and yet, even by our critics themselves, they are acknowledged to be 
properly placed in the present tense." 'Murray's Grammar, octavo ed., p. 21]. 

The arrangement of the subjunctive mode, noticed in the preceding remarks, is that given in 
this work. 

5. "We shall conclude these detached observations with one remark, which may be useful to 
the young scholar, namely, that, as the indicative mode is converted into the subjunctive, by the 
expression of a condition, motive, wish, or supposition's being superadded to it ; so the potential 
mode may, in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive ; as will be seen in the following exam- 
ples : " If 1 could deceive him, I should abhor it ;" " Though he should increase in wealth, he 
would not be charitable ; " " Even in prosperity, he would gain no esteem, unless he should 
conduct himself better." Murray's octavo ed., p. 82. 

6. It will be seen, that the use of the auxiliaries should, could, might, and would, in the follow- 
ing phrases, accords with the explanations given of the elliptical form of the subjunctive mode : 
" if he go i" "if he (should) go;" "if he (could) go;" "if he (might) go ;"" if he (would) go." 

7. There is among grammarians a difference of opinion as to the terms proper to be employed 
to designate the second form of the subjunctive mode. 

It is the opinion of some grammarians, (who think proper to distinguish elliptical construc- 
tions — see page 36,) that all verbs having the auxiliary may, can, must, might, could, would, or 
should, expressed, preceded bv a conjunction signifying a condition, &,c. ; as, " if I may go," 
" if I can go," " if I must go,"*" if I might go," " if I could go," " if I would go," " if I should 
go," (as verbs thus formed never denote past time;) — should be considered in the subjunctive 
mode, present tense, potential form. 

8. Others consider all verbs thus formed, whether the auxiliary is expressed or implied, (if pro- 
ceded by a conjunction signifying a condition, &c.,) in the subjunctive mode, present tense, 
second form. 

9. And others entertain the opinion, that, " when the verb is changed from the potential into 
the subjunctive mode, the tense is not changed. For example, ' £ may go,' is potential present ; 
' if I may go,' i3 subjunctive present ; and ' he would go,' potential imperfect ; and ' if he would 
go,' subjunctive imperfect," Sec. IngersolPs Grammar, p. 118. 

10. Were is frequently used for would be, and had for would have ; as, " It were injustice to deny 
the execution of the law to any individual;" that is, "It would be injustice." "Many acts, 
which had been blamable in a peaceable government, were employed to detect conspiracies;" 
that is, " which would have been blamable." 

11. A conjunction is often implied before verbs in the subjunctive mode ; as, "Were he my 
friend ; " that is, " If he were my friend : " " Had he been present ; " that is, " If he had been 
present." 

12. It is evident that not only the neuter verb to be, but certain intransitive verbs, require the 
tame case, whether it be the nominative or the objective, before and after them. The verbs to 
become, to wander, to go, to return, to expire, to appear, to die, to live, to look, to grow, to seem, to 
roam, and several others, are of this nature. "After this event, he became physician to the king \}* 
" She wanders an outcast;" " He went out mate, but he returned captain;" "And Swift expires 
a driveller and a show ; " " This conduct made him appear an encourager of every virtue ; " "//or- 
{eiisius died a martyr}'" " The gentle Sidney lived the shepherd's friend," All similar construe 



130 APPENDIX. 

tions may be explained on the principle, that nouns and pronouns are of the same case when they 
signify the same thing, and have the same grammatical relation ; the one merely describing or 
elucidating the other ; as, " The Author of my being formed me man ; " " They desired me to 
call them brethren; " " He seems to have made him what he was." [See Rules 17 and 18, p. 50.] 

13. Intransitive verbs are frequently used as transitive verbs. Some govern a kindred noun, or 
its pronoun, and no other ; as," The Christian lives a holy life." [See examples, page 29.] " And 
nearly allied to this idiom," says Mr. Webster, " is that of using, after verbs transitive, or intran- 
sitive, certain nouns which are not the objects of the verb, nor of precisely the same sense, but 
which are either the names of the result of the verb's action, or closely connected with it. Ex- 
amples : * A crown weighs nineteen penny weights; ' * An empire in his balance weighs a grain ; ' 
* A piece of cloth measures ten yards ; ' * The plank measures twenty feet; ' * The war will cost 
forty millions. 1 " 

14. We sometimes meet with such expressions as these : — "They were nsked a question ;" 
•' They were offered a pardon ; " " He had been left a great estate by his father." In these 
phrases, ve.bs passive are improperly made to govern the objective case. This license is not to 
be approved. The expressions should be, "A question was put to them ; " "A pardon was of- 
fered to them ; " " His father left him a great estate." 

15. There are certain verbs which do not admit for their nominative any thing that has life, or 
any thing that is strictly definable ; such as, " it snows, it hails, it freezes, it rains, it lightens, it 
thunders. 1 '' These are, by some writers, denominated impersonal verbs ; that i3, verbs which 
declare the existence of some action or state, but which do not refer to any animate being, or any 
particular object. 

16. Needs, says Mr. Ingersoll, is doubtless a contraction of need is, the nominative or subject, 
and the verb ; as, "There needs no ghost from the grave to tell us this;" "There yieeds one 
more to make ten ; " " There needs but thinking right and meaning well ; " that is, " There need 
is of no ghost," &c, or, " There is need of," &c. ; " There need is of one more," &c. Needs is 
sometimes used as an adverb ; as, "Offences must needs come," &c. ; "He needs must show his 
master what his art could do," that is, necessarily. 

17. W T hen a verb, having the sign of the infinitive mode, is preceded by no word on which it 
may depend, according to Rule 14, it is said to be in the infinitive mode absolute ; as, " To confess 
the truth, I was in fault.'] [See Remark 4, p. 53.] And a verb of the imperative form, having no 
nominative, expressed or implied, with which it may agree, is in the imperative mode absolute ; as, 
" God said, Let there be light ; " " Let us make man." 

THE MODES AND TENSES. 

The length of time which the system of the modes and tenses, presented by Mr. Murray, has 
been in use, and the extent to which it has been adopted, both in this country and in Europe, af- 
ford the strongest evidence of its merits. It has, from time to time, been objected to by other 
grammarians, and various alterations in it have been proposed, but no one has yet succeeded in 
forming a system more satisfactory to the public. In fact, those who deem improvements in it 
necessary, do not agree in what particular they should be made. What one would reject as in- 
applicable to the language, another would retain as indispensable to a correct understanding of it. 
Mr. Webster, in a learned and critical disquisition, (see his "Improved Grammar," &c.,) gives 
four modes — the indicative, the subjunctive, the infinitive, and the imperative, — and adds, " In 
most English grammars, another mode is given, called the potential. But this mode is really not 
sufficiently distinct in its uses to require a separate consideration in grammar; and, as simplicity 
is a prime excellence in the construction of a grammar, I have rejected that mode. The forms 
of expression, ' I can go,' ' We may ride,' * He must obey,' are really declaratory, and prop- 
erly belong to the indicative." In his "American Dictionary," however, Mr. Webster 
gives the same number of modes as Mr. Murray, and defines them as follows: — 1. "Indica- 
tive. In grammar, the indicative mode is the form of the verb that indicates, that is, which af- 
firms or denies." — 2. Subjunctive: "in grammar, designating a form of verbs which follow 
other verbs, or words expressing a condition, hypothesis, or contingency." — 3. Potential. 
" The potential mode, in grammar, is that form of the verb which is used to express the power, 
possibility, liberty, or necessity of an action, or of being." — 4. Infinitive. "In grammar, 
the infinitive mode expresses the action of the verb, without limitation of person or number ; as, 
to love." — 5. Imperative. " In grammar, the imperative mode of a verb is that which ex- 
presses commands." 

In relation to this subject, Mr. Murray says, " That the potential mode should be separated 
from the subjunctive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion which are produced by their 
being blended together, and from the distinct nature of the two modes ; the former of which may 
bo expressed without any condition, supposition, &c, as will appear from the following in- 
stances : — c They might have done better ; ' ' We may always act uprightly ; ' * He was gen- 
erous, and would not take revenge ; ' ' We should resist the allurements of vice ; ' * I could 
formerly indulge myself in things, of which I cannot now think but with pain.' Some gramma- 
rians have supposed that the potential mode, as here distinguished from the subjunctive, coincides 
with the indicative. But as the latter 'simply indicates or declares a thing,' it is manifest that 
the former, which modifies the declaration, and introduces an idea materially distinct from it, 
must be considerably different. * I can walk,' ' I should walk,' appear to be so essentially dis- 
tinct from the simplicity of ' I walk,' ' I walked,' as to warrant a correspondent distinction 
of modes." 

Other learned writers differ from Mr. Webster, in regard to the portion of Murray's system 



APPENDIX. 



131 



18. la poetry, constructions not allowable in prose are frequently found. For example, 
Auxiliaries are sometimes used as principal verbs ; as, 

M What would this man ? Now upwards will he soar, 
And, little less than angel, would be more." Pope, 

Auxiliaries are frequently omitted, as in the following lines — 

" Now let us sing, Long [may] live the king, 
And Gilpin long [may] live he." Cowpcr. 

Auxiliaries are sometimes placed after their principals ; as, 

M Yet think, amid those scenes of revel high, 
In which is cast his wayward destiny, 
Of one dark deed, he will" . Appleton. 

A verb in the infinitive mode is sometimes placed before the word on which it depends ; as, 
" When first thy sire to send on earth 

Virtue, his darling child, designed." Gray. 

which ought to be rejected. They would retain the potential, and discard the subjunctive mode, 
asserting that there is no foundation for such a mode in the English language. 

There is another class of improvers of Murray's system, who, to use the language of Quintil- 
lian, "possessed with the foolish ambition of discarding all definitions before adopted, and determined 
to give such as they can claim as their own, labor to apply new names, meaning precisely the same 
thing, to old constructions, without in the smallest degree removing the difficulty of which they 
complain." A late reformer of this class claims great credit for having called the subjunctive 
mode, the subjunctive form of expression, and the participial mode of expression, the participial 
mode ! 

Though the scheme presented by Murray has been generally adopted, grammarians do not agree 
as to the number of tenses which belong to English verbs, nor as to the terms by which they 
should be designated. In the grammars published about the middle of the 17th century, the 
tenses are thus divided and described: — " In English, there are six tenses — two imperfect, two 
present, and two future ; viz., the present imperfect, the present perfect, past imperfect, past 
perfect, future imperfect, future perfect." But this classification was found to be inapplicable to 
English verbs, and was consequently, rejected by Murray, who substituted that now in general use. 

A late improver of the principles taught by Murray, however, (ambitious to secure the honors 
of authoiship,) in order to sustain his claim to originality, presents the following table of the 
tenses : — 



A Table of the Tenses used a Century ago, and 
rejected by Mr. Murray. 
Present Imperfect, 
Present Perfect, 
Past Imperfect, 
Past Perfect, 
Future Imperfect, 
Future Perfect. 



A Table of Vie Tenses presented as an Improvt- 
ment on the Srystem of Mr. Murray. 
Imperfect Present ! 
Perfect Present I 
Imperfect Past ! 
Perfect Past ! 
Imperfect Future ! 
Perfect Future ! 



It is generally admitted that great improvements have been made in the method of teaching 
grammar, within the last fifty years ; but, it may well be doubted whether the public have gained 
much by the many attempts that have been made to change the leading principles of the science, 
presented by Mr. Murray. 



IMPORTANCE OF CONJUGATING THE VERBS. 

11 As the subjunctive mode, in English, has no variation in the form of the verb from the in- 
dicative, (except in the present tense, and the second future tense of verbs generally ; and in the 
present tense, and the imperfect of the verb to be,) it would be superfluous to conjugate it in this 
work, through every tense. But all the other modes and tenses of the verbs, both in the active 
and passive voices, are conjugated at large, that le;irners may have no doubts or misapprehen- 
sions respecting their particular forms. They to whom the subject of grammar is entirely new, 
and young persons especially, are much more readily and effectually instructed by seeing the 
parts of the subject so essential as the verb, unfolded and spread before them, in all their varie- 
ties, than by being generally and cursorily informed of the manner in which they may be exhib- 
ited. The time employed by scholars, in consequence of this display of the verbs, is of small 
moment, compared with the advantages which they will probably derive from the plan." Mur- 
ray's octavo Grammar, p. 81. 

$^* Experience having abundantly proved that a proper use of the Diagrams, (representing 
the modes and tenses,) presented in the preceding part of this work, lessens the labor of the 
teacher, and facilitates the progress of the pupil, all who use it are respectfully requested to give 
them a fair trial. For the convenience of those, however, who may not choose (by their aid) 
to apply the principles of local association, the several kinds of verbs, active, passive, and neuter, 
are conjugated at length, in the common form. 

Verbs may be conjugated negatively through all the modes and tenses, by using the adverb wot ; 
as, " I write not," " I have not written," &c. 



132 APPENDIX. 

19. The word on which a verb in the infinitive mode depends, is sometimes understood ; as, 
[In order] " To prevent the destruction of property, the most rigorous measures were adopted." 

20. When a verb is preceded by the word here, there, thence, hence, thus, then, such, some, 
herein, therein, neither, nor, yet, or so, its nominative, generally, follows it j as, " There was a 
great tumult among the people j " " Here is true greatness 3 " " Nor blasted were their wedded 
days with strife." 

21. When a verb is placed between two nominatives of different numbers, it may agree with 
either ; but regard should be had to that which is its most natural nominative j as, " His meat 
was locusts and wild honey." 

22. An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and its object, will sometimes admit 
of being put into the passive form, the object of the preposition being assumed for the nomina- 
tive, and the preposition being retained with the verb, as an adverb 3 as, (active,) " They laughed 
at him 3 " (passive,) " He was laughed at." Brown's Orammar. 

23. The tenses do not all express time with equal precision. Those of the indicative mode 
are the most definite. The time expressed by the same tenses in the other modes, is frequently 
relative, and sometimes indefinite. Idem. 

24. There are several combinations of words which express future time, besides the regular 
tenses of the verbs 3 as, " I am going to write ; " "I am about to write." These are called, by 
some writers, the inceptive future. The substantive verb, followed by a verb in the infinitive 
mode, forms another mode of indicating future time 3 as, " Ferdinand is to command the army." 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and of an adjec-' 
tive. Participles signify action or being, but they do not imply affirmation. They may be di- 
vided into three sorts, viz., the present, or active ; the perfect, or passive ; and the compound per- 
fect. The present participle is formed from a verb, by adding ing,* and denotes the continuation 
of an action ; as love, loving.] The perfect participle is regularly formed from a verb, by adding 
d, or cd; as, love, loved-, learn, learned. The perfect participles of irregular verbs, end in e, en, 
t, d, g, h, &c. [See list of irregular verbs, p. 32.] The compound perfect (or passive) participle 
is formed by prefixing having (or being) to the perfect participle of any verb j as, loved, having 
loved j learned, having learned, being learned. 

The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make between the participles, is, 
that one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state, denoted by the verb ; and the 
others to the completion of it. Thus, the present signifies imperfect action, or action begun and 
not ended 3 as, " 1 am writing a letter." The past participles signify action perfected, or finished 3 
as, " I have icritten a letter j " " The letter is written ; " (" The letter having been written") 

The word to which the participle relates is sometimes understood ; as, [We] " Propeily speak- 
ing, [say] there are but two genders ; " [We] " Generally speaking, [say] the heir-at-law is not 
bound by the intention of the testator." 

OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word which generally indicates manner, t me, place, or degree. If added to 
an active verb or its participle, it shows the time when, the place where, or the manner in which, 
the action expressed by such verb or participle, is done. 

Adverbs are a secondary part of speech. Their uses are to enlarge, restrain, limit, define, and, 
in short, to modify, the sense of other words. Webster's Orammar. 

1. JVo frequently stands alone, as an answer to a question; as, " Will you go?" "JVo." 
But, when the verb is expressed, not must always be used ; as, " Will he go ? " " He will not." 

2. Nay (signifying not only negation, but that something is to be added) is emphatically and 
elegantly used to correct an error in ourselves 3 as, " She sings as well as her sister 3 nay, she 
sings better." 

3. Two negatives in English are equivalent to an affirmation j but the repetition of a negative 
strengthens the negation ; as, never i never 1 . ! never! ! J 

4. The verb or the participle which an adverb qualifies, is frequently understood 3 as, li To 
whom thus [spoke] Adam." Milton. "Let us [go] up to the* mountain's brow." "Things 
[which are] here are mine." 

5. " People, generally [speaking,] think but little about the future." 

6. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used for adjectives ; as, " The then ministry," for " The 
ministry of that time j " " The above remarks," for " The preceding remarks 3 " " The almost 
Christian," for " The individual is almost a Christian." 

• Monosyllables, and words accented ontbe last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a sin- 
gle vowel, double the final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; permit, 
permitting. 

t The final c of a primitive word is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a rowel j as, 
rate, ratable; force, forcible; rave, raving, 



APPENDIX. 133 

7. In poetry, words having the form of adjectives are often used for adverbs ; as, 

" And, arching proud his neck, with wary feet, 
Bears forward fierce, and guards his osier isle." Tliomson. 

8. There is, generally, an adverb of place, but it is sometimes a mere expletive * and adds 
nothing to the sense of the passage in which it occurs ; as, u There came a man," &c. In con- 
structions in which it is thus used for the sake of euphony, or of emphasis, the nominative fol- 
lows the verb ; as, " There are delivered in the Holy Scriptures, many weighty arguments," &c. ; 
" In human actions, there are no degrees described," &c. 

9. The use of here and tJiere, says Mr. Webster, in the introduction of sentences before verbs, 
forms an authorized idiom of the language ; though the words may be considered redundant. 
The practice may, continues he, have originated in the use of the hand in pointing, in the early 
stage of society. Here, there, and where, originally denoting place, are now used in reference to 
words, subjects, and various ideas, of which place is not predicable. 

SECONDARY OR HELPING ADVERBS. 

The following table shows the nature and dependence of secondary or helping adverbs : — 

ILLUSTRATION. 

The ship sails fast- 

The ship sails . too fast. 

The sbip sails * much too fast. 

The ship sails veryf much too fast. 

Solution. — Very is a secondary or helping adverb, of the third order, (third remove from the 
adverb,) depending on much ,• much is a secondary, &c, depending on too ; too is a secondary, &c, 
depending on fast ; fast is an adverb, and qualifies sails, according to Rule 4, 

OF PRONOUNS, &c. 

Pronouns are words used instead of nouns, to avoid too frequent a repetition of them. This 
being the principal use of this class of words, the term pronoun is appropriate and expressive. 
It is true that pronouns are not always used instead of nouns ; they sometimes represent other 
parts of speech ; sometimes phrases, and even sentences. On this account, some writers have 
objected to the term pronoun, asserting that, if a word which stands instead of a noun is called 
a. pronoun, a word which stands instead of a. phrase should be called a pro-phrase. These writers, 
to avoid exceptions, recommend the use of the more comprehensive term substitute, instead of 
pronoun. Though the term substitute may be sufficiently definite for a general view of the 
science of grammar, yet it is believed to be too comprehensive to be useful in an elementary 
work. It includes constructions totally unlike ; such as cannot be properly understood by the 
young, unless they are described by a more definite term. To be told that all words which stand 
instead of other words, &c, are substitutes, is not sufficient to make the pupil acquainted with 
the various forms and uses of words of this class. He must, under some more definite classifi- 
cation, consider each subdivision and exception, as fully as he is required to do under the term 
pronoun ; or his knowledge of this class of words, and their uses, will be too general to be of 
much practical benefit. 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

There are five personal pronouns — I, thou, he, she, and it; with their plural?, we, ye or you, 
and they. 

1. When an individual speaks of himself, he uses the pronoun /or me; when more than one 
speak of themselves, they use the pronoun we or us. 

2. When we speak to one individual, we use the pronoun thou or you ; but when we speak to 
more than one, we use the pronoun ye or you. 

3. When we speak of an individual, if of the male sex, we use the pronoun he ; if cf the fe- 

* "An expletive, in language, " says Dr. Johnson, " is something used only to take up room, somfhing of which the 
use is only to prevent a vacancy." And in this sense is there considered in the following extract : — 

" Of an example, where the removal of an expletive endangers the smoothness of the style, the many sentences in 
which the expletive there is found, may be mentioned." Newman' 1 s Rhetoric. 

" Certain adverbs, especially there, where, now, truly, indeed, indwell, are often used merely for the sake of euphony 
or emphasis." British Grammar. 

When these and similar words add nothing to the sense of the sentence in which they are used, they are called ad- 
verbial expletives. Mr. Ingersoll calls there, when it commences a sentence, as, " Titers was a time," an introductory 
adverb. 

t On the principle that the same word is used as different parts of speech, [see page 55,] the class of word* 
usually denominated adverbs of degree [see page 21] are here named according to their use in a sentence. When the 
word very, too, or any other word of this class, is prefixed to an adjective, Sec, [see pa»e 127,] it is called a secondary 
or helping adjective ; but when the same word is prefixed to an adverb, &c, it is called a secoudary or helping adverb, 
as in th« preceding table. [See note at the bottom of page 84.] 

*,* It is thought that these terms will enable the young pupil readily and clearly to understand the nature and office 
©f this class of words ; but, should the teacher prefer using the name " adverb of degree, " he can do so without in- 
convenience ; as, under Rule 6, "Adverbs of degree qualify adjectives and other adverbs," is included the entire 
class of words here denominated " secondary or helping adjectives," and " secondary or helving adverbs." 

12 



134 



APPENDIX, 



male sex, she ; if of an object which is neither male nor female, it. If we speak of more objects 
than one, whether of the male or the female sex, or of neither, we use they. 

Ye is always plural, both in form and sense ; you is plural in form, and either singular or plural 
in sense, according to the number of the noun which it represents. Thou is now seldom found, 
except in the solemn style. 

THE POSSESSIVE CASE OF PRONOUNS. 

Mine and thine were formerly used before words commencing with a vowel sound ; as, " O that 
mine enemy would write a book ! " " Time writes no wrinkle on ifiine azure brow." But this 
mode of construction is now obsolete ; the words my, thy, her* our, your, their, (commonly classed 
as possessive adjective pronouns,) and mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, being considered 
but different forms of the same pronouns, as a and an are of the same article. For the sake of 
euphony, we use my, thy, her, our, your, or their, when the noun is expressed ; as, " my book," 
" thy book," &c. j bat mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, or theirs, when the noun is understood. 

A TABLE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



*rst Person, j *£**. 

Second Person, j *£*»■. 

f Male, 
Third Person, singular, ) Female, 

( Neuter, 
Tliird Person, plural, 



The Nominative 


The 
Objective 


form. 


form. 


I, 


me, 


we, 


us, 


thou, or you, 


thee, 


ye, or you, 


you, 


he, 


him, 


she, 


her, 


it, 


it, 


they, 


them, 



The Possessive 
form, to be used 



with 
a noun. 



my, 

our, 

thy, 

your, 

his, 

her, 

its. 

their, 



tnth.out 
a noun. 



mine. 

ours. 

thine. 

yours. 

his. 

hers. 

theirs. 



In the preceding part of this work, the adjective pronouns are arranged as in the system of 
Murray j those called possessive being used according tojthe directions given in the preceding table. 

TWOFOLD RELATIONS OF PRONOUNS 

OF THE POSSESSIVE FORM. 

It is thought, by some writers on grammar, that, as the words mine, thine, hers, &c, sustain a 
twofold relation, representing the name of the possessor, and that of the thing possessed, it is 
not only unnecessary, but improper, to understand a noun after them. In an Essay on English 
Grammar, in Four Parts, published in 17C0, the twofold state of the pronouns is spoken of, but not 
fully explained. About twenty years since, an ingenious writer* published a Table illustrating 
the twofold relations of pronouns of the possessive form, concerning which he says, " Hitherto the 
usual system of English grammar has so far overlooked the solution of mine, thine, yours, &c, as 
to afford the pupil little or no light respecting their true grammatical character. Teachers not 
having any directions from those whom they liave rigidly followed, have either neglected the so- 
lution of these words, or have distorted their orthography, or unwarrantably introduced the noun 
for which the pronoun stands. For instance, * That book is mine.' 

u Here mine is turned into my, and the noun introduced thus — ' my book.' But the solution 
which is derived from an interference with the orthography of the language, cannot be in accord- 
ance with the grammatical principles of any language. This would be supporting syntax at the 
expense of orthography." 

Mr. Webster, in his " New Grammar of the English Language," published about ten years 
afterwards, says, — 

" That mine , thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, do not constitute a possessive case, is 
demonstrable j for they are constantly used as the nominatives to verbs, and as the objectives after 
verbs and prepositions, as in the following passages : — 

" ' Whether it could perform its operations of thinking and memory, out of a body organized as 
ours is.' Locke, b. ii. 27. 'You may imagine what kind of faith theirs *bas. y Bacon. l My 
sword and yours are kin.' Shakspeare. 





ILLUSTRATION. 




Nominative Position. 


Possessive Fbrm. 


Objective Position 


Mine are — 


mine 


— with mine. 


Ours are — 


ours 


— with ours. 


Thine are — 


thine 


— with thine. 


Yours are — 


yours 


— with yours. 


His are — 


his 


— with his. 


Theirs are — 


theirs 


— with theirs. 


Hers are — 


hers 


— with hers. 




* James Brown. 





APPENDIX. 135 

Example. — " Every pupil had a book ; mine was with yours." 

Solution of mine and yours. — Mine is a personal pronoun, of the first person, possessive form, 
twofold state, (representing both the name of the possessor, and that of the thing possessed,) in 
the nominative case to was. Yours is a personal pronoun, of the second person, possessive form, 
in the twofold state, and objective position (case). 

IT. 

The pronoun it, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is frequently joined, in explana- 
tory sentences, with a noun or a pronoun of the masculine or the feminine gender j as, " It was 
I ; " " It was the man or the woman that did it." 

The pronoun it is sometimes omitted, and understood : thus we say, " as appears, as follows," 
for " as it appears, as it follows • " and " may be," for " it may be." 

The pronoun it is sometimes employed to express— 

1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry : as, "It happened on a summers day j " " Who 
was it that called on me ? " 

2d. The state or condition of any person or thing ; as>" How is it with you ? " 

3d. The thing, whatsoever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event, or any person, consid- 
ered merely as a cause ; as, " The truth is, it was I that helped hor." 

The pronoun it is used for a mere infant, or a little child ; as, " it laughs," " it cries," " it 
plays." 

The pronoun it sometimes stands for a phrase or a sentence ; a«, " Ke was the sole cause of the 
disaster, and he knows it." 

RELATIVE AND COMPOUND PRONOUNS, &c. 

Singular. Cases. Plural. 

Nominative, who, Possessive, whose, Objective, whom. 

whoever, whoseever, whomever. 

whosoever, whosesoever, whomsoever. 

Whoever and whosoever are used instead of the personal pronoun he and the relative who ; as t 
" Whoever accepts the office of magistrate, is bound to enforce the laws." The antecedent part 
(he) is the nominative to is bound, and the relative part (who) is the nominative to accepts, agree- 
ing with he, its antecedent, in person, number, and gender. 

" Whosoever has Christ for his friend, shall be sure of counsel." 

" He who has Christ for his friend, shall be sure of counsel." 

Whomever and whomsoever are used instead of the personal pronoun him, and the relative whom ; 
as, " The Lord loveth whomsoever he chasteneth." The antecedent part (him) is in the objective 
case, and is governed by loveth; and the relative part (whom) is in the objective case, and is 
governed by chasteneth. 

What, whatever, and whatsoever, are used instead of that which, or the thing which, and (when 
used in a. plural sense) those which, or the things which ; as, 

1. " He likes what I dislike ; " that is, " He likes that which I dislike." The antecedent part 
(that) is in the objective case, and is governed by likes; and the relative part (which) is in the ob- 
jective case, and is governed by dislike. 

2. " Take as many as you want, and I will take what are left ; " that is, " I will take those 
which are left." The antecedent part (those) is in the objective case, and is governed by take; and 
the relative part (which) is the nominative to are left. 

3. "There is something so overruling in whatever i-nspi'res us with awe." Burke. That is, 
"in that which inspires us with awe." The antecedent part (that) is in the objective case, and is 
governed by in',, the relative part (which) is the nominative to inspires. 

4. " Whatsoever she fancied was procured for her ; " that is, " That which she fancied," &.c. 
The antecedent part (that) is the nominative to was procured; the relative part (which) is in the 
objective case, and is governed by fancied. 

5. What is used for which part, or parts ; as, " If we rightly estimate things, what in them is 
purely owing to nature, and what to labor, we shall find ninety-nine parts of a hundred are wholly 
to be put on the account of labor." Locke. 

6. What is used as an indefinite pronoun; as, " I tell thee what, corporal, I could tear her! " 
Shakspeare. 

7. What is used with though, instead of notwithstanding, or elliptically for " What imvorts it ? " 
or " What will be the consequence ? " as, 

tl What though, in solemn silence, all 
Move round this dark, terrestrial ball ? " Addison. 

8. What is used adverbially for partly ; as, "Thus, what with the war, what with the sweat, 
what with the gallows, and what with poverty, I am custom shrunk." Shakspeare. 

9. What is sometimes used as an interjection ; as, 

" What! canst thou not forbear mc half an hour r 
Then get thee gone,, and dig my grave thyself,** Shakspeare.. 



136 APPENDIX. 

" What ho ! thou genius of the clime, what ho ! 
Liest thou asleep beneath those hills of snow ? 
Stretch out thy lazy limbs." Dry den. 

COMPOUND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, &c. 

1. WJtat, prefixed to nouns, is used instead of the demonstrative adjective pronoun those, and 
the relative which; as, 

tc What blessings thy free bounty gives, 
Let me not cast away." Pope. [" Those blessings which."] 

2. What, prefixed to nouns, is used for which of several ; as, "See what natures accompany 
what colors j for by that you shall induce colors by producing those natures." Bacon. " She 
knows not what colors are in fashion." Steele. 

3. Wliat, prefixed to adjectives, is sometimes used adverbially to express admiration or de- 
gree j as., 

"Am I so much deformed? 

What partial judges are our love and hate I " Dryden. 

" What tall trees grow here ! " 

" What wise men are our counsellors ! " 

4. Whatever, prefixed to nouns, is sometimes used instead of the adjective all, and the relative 
which ; as, " Whatever ornament a concise writer admits, is adopted for the sake of force, rather 
than of grace." 

5. Whatever is sometimes used instead of the distributive adjective pronoun every, and the 
relative who ; as, " Nature endows with richer treasures whatever happy man will deign to use 
them." Akenside. That is, "Nature endows, every happy. man,wAo will," &c. 

6. It is believed that the examples given will be found sufficient to make the pupil acquainted 
with the nature and use of the compound pronouns, &c. Though he wilLfind some constructions 
in which they stand in different relations to other words ;, and some, in which they are used in- 
stead of other words than those presented in the preceding examples, yet, by proper attention 
to the meaning of his author, he will be able readily to analyze them. 

WHO, WHICH, THAT, &c. 

1. Who, which, and that, (when that can be changed into who or which,) are relative pronouns ; 
and, when used thus, they agree with their antecedents, or the words which they represent, in 
person, number, and gender. 

2. Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are interrogative pronouns j and 
some writers on grammar teach that these words, when thus used, agree in person, number, 
and gender, with a word in the expected answer, which is thence called its subsequent. But this 
distinction is believed to be unsound and unnecessary. Questions are generally asked for the 
purpose of obtaining information, and the inquirer is not supposed to know what the answer will 
be j and whether or not the leading word in the answer shall agree in " person, number, and gen- 
der," with the pronoun used in asking the question, depends on the facts, or on the degree of infor- 
mation possessed by the respondent, as will be seen by the following examples : — 

" Who makes your pens ? " " / make them myself." — " Who is the tyrant ? " " Thou art he." 
—"Who has been into the library?" "Ml the girls."—-" Who broke this slate?" "/don't 
know." 

3* In poetry, the antecedent of a relative pronoun is frequently understood j as, 

tHe] " Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor ; 
He] " Who lives to fancy, never can be rich." 

4. The relative pronoun sometimes precedes its antecedent; as, m 

" Who thus define it, say they more or less 
Than this, < That happiness is happiness.'" Pope. 

5. " Pronouns usually follow the word which they represent ; but this order is sometimes re- 
versed ; as, l Whom the cap fits, let him put it on.' " Brown's Qr«mman. 

6. In a direct answer to a question, the verb and its object are frequently omitted; as, "Who 
invented the telescope ? " " Galileo ; " that is, " Galileo invented it." 

7. Which sometimes stands for an adjective, a verb, a phrase, or an entire sentence ; as, " The 
girls laugh, which the teacher does not allow them to do in school." Here which stands for the 
verb laugh. 

8. " They supposed him to be innocent, which he certainly was not." Here which stands for the 
adjective innocent. 

9. " The prisoner pleaded ' not guilty, 1 which it was well known he could not be." Here which 
atands for the phrase " not guilty." 

10." " He was punished without cause, which created much sympathy in his favor." Which hore 
stands for the preceding sentence, " He was punished without cause." 

11. Though, in certain constructions, that may be used in preference to who or which, yet too 
frequent a use qf this word should be avoided. The following sentence, though not elegant, u 



APPENDIX. 131 

strictly grammatical : — "The tutor said, in reference to the word that, that that that that that 
pupil had parsed, was not the that that that pupil should have parsed." — Solution. The first that 
is a noun ; the second, a conjunction ; the third, a demonstrative adjective pronoun ; the fourth, 
a noun ; the fifth, a relative pronoun ; the sixth a demonstrative adjective pronoun ; the seventh, 
a noun ; the eighth, a relative pronoun ; the ninth, a demonstrative adjective pronoun. 

AS. 

As, when it follows such, (and, frequently, when it follows same and many,) is a relative pro- 
noun. " Send him such books as will please him." In this and similar constructions, says Mr. 
Webster, as must be considered as the nominative to will please ; or we must suppose an ellipsis 
of several words. " Send him such books as the books which will please him, or as those which 
will please him." 

" The malcontents made such demands as none but a tyrant could refuse." In this sentence, 
as is a relative pronoun, in the objective case, and is governed by could refuse. 

Each and other are frequently used in a reciprocal sense, and may be called reciprocal pronouns*; 
as, " They love each other ; " that is, " They love — each loves the other." " A plural verb," 
says Mr. Webster, " which affirms something of a number of particulars, is often followed by a 
distributive which assigns the affirmation to the particular object or individual ; thus, ' if metals 
have each a peculiar earth.' Hence we may consider each the nominative to has understood. ' If 
metals have—if each metal has a peculiar earth.' " 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

When the words you, it, they, who, which, what, Sec, or any of their compounds, do not 
stand for any definite object or objects, they may be considered indefinite pronouns. — Examples. 
" As you pass up that noble river," &c. " How is it with you ? " " They say there is news from 
England." " I cannot guess who did the mischief." "Whatever he undertakes, either his pride 
or his folly disgusts us." &c. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions sometimes connect words ; but they generally connect sentences, so as, out of 
two or more simple sentences, to make one compound sentence. Conjunction* also begin sen- 
tences after a full period, signifying the relation which exists between the following and the pre- 
ceding sentence. [For explanations of the conjunctions, see pp. 25, 88.] 

1. Rule 19, [see p. 51.] "A verb having two or more nominatives connected by the copulative 
and, must be oi the plural form." 

Exceptions. When the distributive adjective pronoun every belongs to each of the nominatives 
connected by and; as, "Every man and every woman was numbered ;" or, when the nomina- 
tives so connected are in apposition ; as, " That able scholar and critic has been eminently suc- 
cessful in the cause of religion j " the verb must be of the singular form. 

2. The relative pronoun, whether in the nominative, or in the objective case, generally precedes 
the verb j but after the conjunction than, contrary to analogy, whom is used instead of who ; as, 

" Beelzebub, 

Than whom* none higher sat." Milton. 

It is worthy of remark, that, when the pronoun follows than, the nominative form is required. 

3. When the conjunctions as if occur in immediate succession, a sentence is always under- 
stood between them ; as, " The man acts as if he were crazy j " that is, " The man acts as he 
would act, if he were crazy." 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Preposition, (Lat. prapositio ;) " in grammar ; a word usually put before another to express 
some relation or quality, action or motion, to or from the thing specified." Webster. [For a list 
of the principal prepositions, see pp. 26, 61, 89.] Besides the words usually classed as preposi- 
tions, there are several idiomatic constructions (consisting of words having no separate meaning) 
which may be termed Compound Prepositions 3 as, according to, relating to, relative to, as for, 

• The following idiomatic phrases are sometimes found in old authors :— 

1. MethinJct. " As in all ages poets have been had in special reputation, and, mtthinks, not without great canse."' 

Spenser*. 
2* MethcughU " Methought a serpent eat my heart away, 

And you sat smiling at his cruel prey." Shakspeare. 
3. Mtscemt. " Alas I of ghosts I hear the ghastly cries ; 

Yet there, meteeme, I hear her singing loud." Sidney. 
These and similar phrases are exceptions to the rules of construction. 



138 APPENDIX. 

as to, &c. And there are also several words having the form of participles, which are sometimes 
used as prepositions ; as, concerning, saving, touching, regarding, respecting, excepting, &c. 

There are also several words, (commonly considered adverbs,) which, when used as in the 
following examples, are secondary (or helping) prepositions ; as, almost, nearly, &c. " They 
sailed almost across the lake." " He walked nearly into the city." [See Secondary Adjectives, 
p. 127, and Secondary Adverbs, p. 133.] 

2. Worth* sustains a twofold relation to other words in a sentence ; as, " The adventurer was 
not worth the clothes [them] on his back." As an adjective, it shows a circumstance in relation to 
the person for which trie noun, adventurer, stands ; and, as a preposition, it govecns the noun clothes 
in the objective case. 

3. To prepositions, expressed or understood, is assigned the government of nouns and pronouns 
in the objective case. In constructions in which nouns of time, dimension, &.c, occur, it is some- 
times exceedingly difficult so to supply the ellipses as to preserve the form of the sentence, and 
express the meaning intended to be conveyed. To obviate this difficulty, different rules have 
been presented by different writers on grammar. The words in Italic, in the following phrases — 
" a carpet six yards wide," — " a line sixty fathoms long," — " a monument two hundred/cet high," 
— " a plank two feet wide," — " an army forty thousand strong," — are, generally, considered nouns, 
in the objective case, governed by some preposition understood. In the opinion of some gram- 
marians, however, (and of the number is Mr. Webster,) the words in Italic, in the preceding ex- 
amples, stand without a governing word: — 

" Names of measure or dimension stand without a governing word, followed by an adjective J 
as, c a wall seven feet high, and two feet thick.' " Webster's Grammar. 

4. Others consider those words, when thus used, (though commonly nouns,) secondary, or 
helping adjectives ; — believing that they perform the same office, and have the same dependence, 
as other words admitted to be such. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

I. 

The wall is thick. 

The wall is too thick. 

The wall is ........................ .. ...... . . much too thick. 

The wall is very much too thick. 

II. 

The wall is high.. 

The wall is too high. 

The wall is feet too high. 

The wall is . six feet too high. 

The wall is quite six feet too high. 

III. 

The water is deep. 

The water is ... six inches deep. 

The water is ten feet and six inches deep. 

The water is one hundred and ten feet and six inches deep. 

The waterjs one thousand one hundred and ten feet and six inches deep. 

When two prepositions stand together, as, from below, from betwixt, &c, a sentence is, generally, 
understood between them; as, "The music of the birds rose sweetly from below j " that is, 
" from [the vale] below " [us. J 

" Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes, 
From betwixt two aged oaks." 
That is, " From [space] betwixt two aged oaks." 

5. The preposition is sometimes improperly separated from the relative which it governs ; as, 
" Whom will you give it to? " instead of" To whom will you give it; " — and the sign of the in- 
finitive mode, to, from the verb to which it belongs j as, " He expects to soon visit his friends," 
instead of " He expects soon to visit," &c. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Any word or phrase, says Mr. Murray, may become an interjection, or, at least, it may be 
used as such, when it is expressed with emotion, and in an unconnected manner j as, behold 
peace! strange! ungrateful creature! folly in the extreme! [See pp. 26, 90.] 

2. Interjections in connection with npuns or pronouns, require after them the objective of the 
first person, and the nominative of the second ; as, ah me! thou ! 



* " The book is wcrth a dollar." Worth is a compound word, including both an adjective and a jyrepoHHon. " The 
book is equal in value lo a dollar." As an adjective, it belongs to book ; as a preposition, its object is dollar. 

~* Parkhurst's Qramnw, 

M The adjective ttotrtfi governs the objective case." Ingersoll's Grammar. 



APPENDIX. 



139 



EXPLANATION 

OF THE 

Examples to be parsed on page 56. 



All is (1) a noun ; 
verb. 



(2) an adjective ; (3) an ad- 



As is (1) an adverb; (2) a relative pronoun; 
(3) a conjunction. 

Both is (1) a conjunction ; (2) an indeclinable 
pronoun. 

But is (1) an adverb, meaning only ; (2) a con- 
junction ; (3) (but, when it has the meaning 
of except, is, by some grammarians, consid- 
ered) el preposition. 

Calm is (1) an adjective ; (2) a noun; (3) SLverb. 

Damp is (1) an adjective; (2) a noun; (3) a 
verb. 

Enough is (1) an adjective ; (2) an adverb ; (3) a 

noun. 
For is (1) a conjunction; (2) a. preposition. 
Hail is (1) a verb; (2) an interjection; (3) a 

noun. 
Like is (1) a noun ; (2) an adjective ; (3) an ad- 

verb ; (4) a rcr&. 



Little is (l)a noun; (2) an adjective ; (3) an 
adverb. 

Long is (1) an adverb ; (2) a ver&,- (3) an ad- 
jective. 

Much is (1) a noun; (2) an adverb; (3) an ad- 
jective. 

Since is (1) a preposition ; (2) an adverb; (3) a 
conjunction. 

Still is (1) a conjunction; (2)aTverb; (3) an 
adverb ; (4) an adjective. 

That is (1) an adjective pronoun (see p. 23) ; 
(2) a demonstrative pronoun ; (3) a conjunc- 
tion ; (4) a relative pronoun. 

To is (1) a noun, it being the name of a word ; 
(2) a sign of the infinitive mode ; (3) a part 
of an adverbial phrase (" to and fro ") ; (4) a 
part of a substantive phrase (" ten to one "). 

To-morrow is (1) a noun; (2) an adverb. 

Utmost is (1) an adjective; (2) a noun. 

Yesterday is (1) a noun; (2) an adverb. 



[*.• Th« numbers-ia the preceding Explanation correspond to the numbers in the examples.] 



CONCLUSION. 

" He that has much to do, will do something wrong, and of that wrong must 
suffer the consequences; and, if it were possible that he should always act 
rightly, yet, when such numbers are to judge of his conduct, the bad will 
censure and obstruct him by malevolence, and the good sometimes by mis- 
take." Doctor Johnson, 



*- ; x 



Omissions to be supplied by the Teacher. — Page 15. After the Definition of Etymology, 
add, kl There are ten sorts of words, or as they are commonly called, parts of speech." Page 
26 — add to the'-' Questions," the following— "How many parts of speech are there ? Name 
them in the order in which they have been presented." Page 47— substitute the passive form 
of the verb love, Infinitive and Imperative modes, for the active form. 

.Errors.— Page 2, after "year," read 1835. Page 124, third line from the bottom, for '-'show," 
read shows, Page 139, under still, reverse the words "verb" and "adverb"— Nos. (2) & (3.) 



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